Editing History of Canada (section)

==Canada under French rule ==
{{Main|New France|Former colonies and territories in Canada}}
[[File:Jacques Cartier a Hochelaga.jpg|thumb|[[Jacques Cartier]] meeting with the [[St. Lawrence Iroquois]] at [[Hochelaga (village)|Hochelaga]] during his second voyage in 1535]]
French interest in the [[New World]] began with [[Francis I of France]], who in 1524 sponsored [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]'s navigation of the region between [[Florida]] and Newfoundland in hopes of finding a route to the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="Litalien2004">{{cite book|first1=Raymonde |last1=Litalien|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnE0tjj9MbgC&pg=PA61|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|page=61}}</ref> Although the English had laid claims to it in 1497 when John Cabot made landfall somewhere on the North American coast (likely either modern-day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia) and had claimed the land for England on behalf of King Henry VII,<ref name="Short2003">{{cite book|first1=John R. |last1=Short|title=The World Through Maps: A History of Cartography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kV3ybVPTN3sC&pg=PA94|year=2003|publisher=University of Maryland|isbn=978-1-55297-811-5|page=94}}</ref> these claims were not exercised and England did not attempt to create a permanent colony. 

As for the French, however, [[Jacques Cartier]] planted a cross in the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] in 1534 and claimed the land in the name of Francis I, creating a region called "[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]" the following summer.<ref name="Loren2008">{{cite book|first1=Diana Dipaolo |last1=Loren|title=In Contact: Bodies and Spaces in the Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-century Eastern Woodlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0cuFvBDl8YC&pg=PA38|year=2008|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0-7591-0661-1|page=38}}</ref> Cartier had sailed up the St. Lawrence river as far as the [[Lachine Rapids]], to the spot where Montreal now stands.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Canada |volume=5 |page=156 |first=George Robert |last=Parkin}}</ref> Permanent settlement attempts by Cartier at [[Charlesbourg-Royal]] in 1541, at [[Sable Island]] in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, and at [[Tadoussac, Quebec]] in 1600 by [[François Gravé Du Pont]] all eventually failed.<ref name="Riendeau2007poi">{{cite book|first1=Roger E. |last1=Riendeau|title=A Brief History of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&pg=PA36|year=2007|orig-year=2000 |edition=second |publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0822-3|page=36}}</ref> Despite these initial failures, French fishing fleets visited the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic coast]] communities and sailed into the [[St. Lawrence River]], trading and making alliances with [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]],<ref name="PickettPickett2011">{{cite book|first1=Margaret F. |last1=Pickett|first2=Dwayne W. |last2=Pickett|title=The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTkyqDHcBvsC&pg=PA61|year=2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-6221-6|page=61}}</ref> as well as establishing fishing settlements such as in [[Percé, Quebec|Percé]] (1603).<ref name="Wright2014">{{cite book|first1=Louis B. |last1=Wright|title=The Thirteen Colonies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4epBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT86|year=2014|publisher=New Word City|isbn=978-1-61230-811-1|page=86}}</ref> As a result of France's claim and activities in the colony of Canada, the name ''Canada'' was found on international maps showing the existence of this colony within the St. Lawrence river region.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.nationalpost.com/news/putting-canada-on-the-map-436-year-old-globe-that-first-labeled-great-white-north-to-be-sold-at-uk-auction |title=Putting Canada on the map: 16th-century globe that first labeled Great White North to be auctioned in U.K. |last1=Boswell |first1= Randy |date=April 22, 2013 |newspaper=National Post |location=Toronto}}</ref>
[[File:Champlain en canot 1603.jpg|thumb|[[Samuel de Champlain]] with two [[Innu]] guides in 1603]]
In 1604, a [[North American fur trade]] monopoly was granted to [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons|Pierre Du Gua, Sieur de Mons]].<ref name="Vaugeois">{{cite book|first1=Raymonde |last1=Litalien|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnE0tjj9MbgC&pg=PA242|year=2004|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|page=242}}</ref> The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North America.<ref name="Innis1999">{{cite book|first1=Harold Adams |last1=Innis|title=The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eCgps70cHV4C&pg=PR6|year=1999|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8196-4|page=6}}</ref> Du Gua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the [[Saint Croix River (Maine – New Brunswick)|St. Croix River]]. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named [[Samuel de Champlain]], who promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States.<ref name="Vaugeois"/> In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new [[Saint Croix Island, Maine#St. Croix Settlement|St. Croix settlement]] was moved to [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]] (today's [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia]]).<ref name="IO">{{cite book|first1=J. M. |last1=Bumsted|title=Canada's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook|url=https://archive.org/details/canadasdiversepe0000bums|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-672-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadasdiversepe0000bums/page/37 37]}}</ref> Samuel de Champlain also landed at Saint John Harbour on June 24, 1604 (the feast of St. John the Baptist) and is where the city of [[Saint John, New Brunswick]], and the [[Saint John River (Bay of Fundy)|Saint John River]] gets their name.<ref name="thecanadianencyclopedia.ca">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Elizabeth W. |last1=McGahan |title=Saint John |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |date=March 4, 2015 |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/saint-john/}}</ref>
[[File:Fondation de la ville de Quebec par Samuel de Champlain en 1608.jpg|thumb|The establishment of Quebec City in 1608, with Samuel de Champlain and his party depicted in the bottom foreground.]]
In 1608 Champlain founded what is now [[Quebec City]], one of the earliest permanent settlements, which would become the capital of New France.<ref name="Kornwolf2002q">{{cite book|first1=James D. |last1=Kornwolf |title=Architecture and Town Planning in Colonial North America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_DV9DGUDzkC&pg=PR14|year=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-5986-1|page=14}}</ref> He took personal administration over the city and its affairs and sent out expeditions to explore the interior.<ref name="ConradFinkel2005">{{cite book|first1=Margaret |last1=Conrad|first2=Alvin |last2=Finkel|title=History of the Canadian Peoples|year=2005|publisher=Longman Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-321-27008-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofcanadia0004conr/page/58 58]|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofcanadia0004conr/page/58}}</ref> Champlain became the first known European to encounter [[Lake Champlain]] in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the [[Ottawa River]] through [[Lake Nipissing]] and [[Georgian Bay]] to the centre of [[Wyandot people|Huron]] country near [[Lake Simcoe]].<ref name="R2002">{{cite book|last1=Magocsi |first1=Paul R.|title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA15|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8469-9|page=15}}</ref> During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wyandot people (aka "Hurons") in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy.<ref name="Hodge2003">{{cite book|first1=Frederick Webb |last1=Hodge|title=Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68ERQ9fkyTMC&pg=PA585|year= 2003|publisher=Digital Scanning Inc|isbn=978-1-58218-749-5|page=585}}</ref> As a result, the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as the [[Beaver Wars|French and Iroquois Wars]]) until the signing of the [[Great Peace of Montreal]] in 1701.<ref name="Havard2001v">{{cite book|first1=Gilles |last1=Havard|title=The Great Peace of Montreal of 1701: French-native Diplomacy in the Seventeenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/greatpeaceofmont0000hava|url-access=registration|year=2001|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-6934-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/greatpeaceofmont0000hava/page/4 4]}}</ref>

The English, led by [[Humphrey Gilbert]], had claimed [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], in 1583 as the first North American [[English overseas possessions|English colony]] by royal prerogative of Queen [[Elizabeth I]].<ref name=DCgil>{{cite DCB |first=David B. |last=Quinn |title=Gilbert, Sir Humphrey |volume=1 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/gilbert_humphrey_1E.html |access-date=September 10, 2011}}</ref> In the reign of [[James VI and I|King James I]], the English established additional colonies in [[Cupids, Newfoundland and Labrador|Cupids]] and [[Ferryland]], [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], and soon after established the first successful permanent settlements of [[Virginia]] to the south.<ref name=hornsby>{{cite book|last1=Hornsby|first1=Stephen J|title=British Atlantic, American frontier : spaces of power in early modern British America|year=2005|publisher=University Press of New England|isbn=978-1-58465-427-8|pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> On September 29, 1621, a charter for the foundation of a New World [[Scottish colonization of the Americas|Scottish colony]] was granted by King James to [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|William Alexander]].<ref name=Michael>{{cite book| last1 =Fry| first1=Michael|title=The Scottish Empire| publisher=Tuckwell Press| year =2001|isbn=978-1-84158-259-7|page=21}}</ref> In 1622, the first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed and permanent Nova Scotian settlements were not firmly established until 1629 during the end of the [[Anglo-French War (1627–1629)|Anglo-French War]].<ref name=Michael/> These colonies did not last long except the fisheries in Ferryland under [[David Kirke]].<ref name="PopeLewis-Simpson2013">{{cite book|first1=Peter Edward |last1=Pope|first2=Shannon |last2=Lewis-Simpson|title=Exploring Atlantic Transitions: Archaeologies of Transience and Permanence in New Found Lands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gagTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA278|year=2013|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=978-1-84383-859-3|page=278}}</ref> In 1631, under [[Charles I of England]], the [[Treaty of Suza]] was signed, ending the war and returning Nova Scotia to the French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Charles Fort National Historic Site of Canada|url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/charles/natcul/natcul3.aspx|year=2009|publisher=Parks Canada|access-date=June 23, 2010|archive-date=October 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004220926/http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/ns/charles/natcul/natcul3.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref> New France was not fully restored to French rule until the 1632 [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]].<ref name="Kingsford1888">{{cite book|first1=William |last1=Kingsford|title=The History of Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IBUwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA109|year=1888|publisher=K. Paul, French, Trübner & Company|page=109}}</ref> This led to new French immigrants and the founding of [[Trois-Rivières]] in 1634.<ref name="Powell2009a">{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA67|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=67}}</ref>
[[File:QueenAnnesWarBefore.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Map of North America in 1702, showing areas occupied by European settlements. By the 18th century, the British and French had several competing claims in [[northern America]].]]
After Champlain's death in 1635, the [[Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Jesuit missions in North America|Jesuit establishment]] became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to establish a [[utopia]]n European and Aboriginal Christian community.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Li|last1= Shenwen|year= 2001|title= Stratégies missionnaires des Jésuites Français en Nouvelle-France et en Chine au XVII<sup>ième</sup> siècle |publisher=Les Presses de l'Université Laval, L'Harmattan|page=44|isbn=978-2-7475-1123-0}}</ref> In 1642, the [[Sulpicians]] sponsored a group of settlers led by [[Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve]], who founded Ville-Marie, the precursor to present-day [[Montreal]].<ref name="Miquelon">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ville-marie-colony |title=Ville-Marie (Colony) |last1=Miquelon |first1=Dale |date=December 16, 2013 |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |edition=online |access-date=January 17, 2016 |archive-date=February 27, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227080146/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/ville-marie-colony/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1663 the [[French crown]] took direct control of the colonies from the [[Company of New France]].<ref name="Hartz1969">{{cite book|first1=Louis |last1=Hartz|title=The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7YFyzsBYnEC&pg=PT224|year=1969|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-547-97109-4|page=224}}</ref>

Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct French control,<ref name="Preston2009">{{cite book|first1=David L. |last1=Preston|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|page=43}}</ref> most of the new arrivals were farmers, and the rate of population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high.<ref name="McIlwraithMuller2001">{{cite book|first1=Thomas F. |last1=McIlwraith|first2=Edward K. |last2=Muller|title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fa--xLT_dRYC&pg=PA72|year=2001|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4616-3960-2|page=72}}</ref> The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France.<ref name=Landry/> Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time."<ref name=Landry/> This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years.<ref name=Landry>{{cite journal|first1=Yves |last1=Landry|title=Fertility in France and New France: The Distinguishing Characteristics of Canadian Behavior in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries |journal=Social Science History |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=577–592|jstor=1171305|date=Winter 1993|doi=10.1017/s0145553200016928|s2cid=147651557 }}</ref> The [[1666 census of New France]] was conducted by [[Intendant of New France|France's intendant]], [[Jean Talon]], in the winter of 1665–1666. The census showed a population count of 3,215 ''[[Acadians]]'' and ''[[habitants]]'' (French-Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of [[Acadia]] and Canada.<ref name=Talon>{{cite web|title=(Census of 1665–1666) Role-playing Jean Talon|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/kits-trousses/jt2-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2009|access-date=June 23, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225232904/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/kits-trousses/jt2-eng.htm|archive-date=February 25, 2012}}</ref> The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.<ref name=Histories>{{cite web|title=Statistics for the 1666 Census|url=http://amicus.collectionscanada.gc.ca/aaweb-bin/aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=999999999_142&l=0&d=2&v=0&lvl=1&itm=30327415|publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]|year=2006|access-date=June 24, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904053654/http://amicus.collectionscanada.gc.ca/aaweb-bin/aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=999999999_142&l=0&d=2&v=0&lvl=1&itm=30327415|archive-date=September 4, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Wars during the colonial era===
{{Further|French and Indian Wars}}
{{See also|Military history of Canada}}
[[File:Les Anglais évacuant le Fort Nelson en 1697 dans la baie d'Hudson.jpg|thumb|[[Hudson's Bay Company]] personnel surrender [[York Factory|Fort Nelson]] to French forces after the [[Battle of Hudson's Bay]]]]
By the early 1700s, the [[List of French forts in North America|New France settlers were well established]] along the shores of the St. Lawrence River and parts of Nova Scotia, with a population of around 16,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/98-187-x/4151287-eng.htm|publisher=Statistics Canada|year=2009|access-date=August 26, 2010}}</ref> However, new arrivals stopped coming from France in the proceeding decades,<ref name="Powell2009b">{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA203|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=203}}</ref><ref name="Dale2004b">{{cite book|first1=Ronald J. |last1=Dale|title=The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a North American Empire 1754–1763|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZmpn3g3UFQC&pg=PR2|year=2004|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-1-55028-840-7|page=2}}</ref><ref name="FindlingThackeray2011">{{cite book|first1=John E. |last1=Findling|first2=Frank W. |last2=Thackeray|title=What Happened?: An Encyclopedia of Events that Changed America Forever|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2YSI904ZNsC&pg=PA38|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-621-8|page=38}}</ref> meaning that the English and Scottish settlers in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the southern [[Thirteen Colonies]] outnumbered the French population approximately ten to one by the 1750s.<ref name="Preston2009"/><ref name="Hart-Davis2012">{{cite book|first1=Adam |last1=Hart-Davis|title=History: From the Dawn of Civilization to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCouMhrlDzYC&pg=PA483|year=2012|publisher=DK Publishing|isbn=978-0-7566-9858-4|page=483}}</ref>

From 1670, through the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], the English also laid claim to Hudson Bay and its drainage basin, known as [[Rupert's Land]], establishing [[List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts|new trading posts and forts]], while continuing to operate fishing settlements in Newfoundland.<ref name="Porter1994">{{cite book|first1=Andrew Neil |last1=Porter|title=Atlas of British overseas expansion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q8EOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA60|year= 1994|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-06347-0|page=60}}</ref> French expansion along the Canadian canoe routes challenged the Hudson's Bay Company claims, and in 1686, [[Pierre de Troyes, Chevalier de Troyes|Pierre Troyes]] led an [[Hudson Bay expedition (1686)|overland expedition from Montreal to the shore of the bay]], where they managed to capture a handful of outposts.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Marsh |first1=James |date=December 16, 2013 |title=Pierre de Troyes |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |edition=online |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/pierre-de-troyes |access-date=November 27, 2013 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010458/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/pierre-de-troyes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle|La Salle]]'s explorations gave France a claim to the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi River Valley]], where fur trappers and a few settlers set up [[List of French forts in North America#United States|scattered forts and settlements]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hbcheritage.ca/hbcheritage/history/people/explorers/samuelhearne.asp |title=Our History: People: Explorers: Samuel Hearne |access-date=November 14, 2007 |publisher=Hudson's Bay Company}}</ref>
[[File:Days of Old (35913521205).jpg|thumb|left|The port inside the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]]. The French built the fortress during the mid-18th century to protect the Acadian colony on [[Île-Royale (New France)|Île-Royale]].]]
There were four [[French and Indian Wars]] and two additional wars in Acadia and Nova Scotia between the Thirteen American Colonies and New France from 1688 to 1763. During [[King William's War]] (1688 to 1697), military conflicts in Acadia included the [[Battle of Port Royal (1690)]]; a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy ([[Action of July 14, 1696]]); and the [[Raid on Chignecto (1696)]].<ref name="Grenier2008a">{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Grenier|title=The Far Reaches Of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&pg=PA123|year=2008|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3|page=123}}</ref> The [[Peace of Ryswick|Treaty of Ryswick]] in 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers of England and France for a brief time.<ref name="ZuehlkeDaniel2006">{{cite book|first1=Mark |last1=Zuehlke|first2=C. Stuart |last2=Daniel|title=Canadian Military Atlas: Four Centuries of Conflict from New France to Kosovo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyNlm8SuplEC&pg=PA16|year= 2006|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|isbn=978-1-55365-209-0|pages=16–}}</ref> During [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702 to 1713), the British [[Siege of Port Royal (1710)|Conquest of Acadia]] occurred in 1710,<ref name="Reid2004">{{cite book|first1=John G. |last1=Reid|title=The "Conquest" of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MqJ9qFqWK4IC&pg=PA48|year=2004|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8538-2|pages=48–}}</ref> resulting in Nova Scotia (other than Cape Breton) being officially ceded to the British by the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]], including Rupert's Land, which France had conquered in the late 17th century ([[Battle of Hudson's Bay]]).<ref name="Axelrod2007">{{cite book|first1=Alan |last1=Axelrod|title=Blooding at Great Meadows: young George Washington and the battle that shaped the man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7EBKOCt_P0EC&pg=PA62|year=2007|publisher=Running Press|isbn=978-0-7624-2769-7|pages=62–}}</ref> As an immediate result of this setback, France founded the powerful [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] on [[Cape Breton Island]].<ref name="Dale2004a">{{cite book|first1=Ronald J. |last1=Dale|title=The Fall of New France: How the French Lost a North American Empire 1754–1763|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pZmpn3g3UFQC&pg=PA13|year=2004|publisher=James Lorimer & Company|isbn=978-1-55028-840-7|page=13}}</ref>

Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year-round military and naval base for France's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. [[Father Rale's War]] resulted in both the fall of New France's influence in present-day [[Maine]] and the British recognition that it would have to negotiate with the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. During [[King George's War]] (1744 to 1748), an army of New Englanders led by [[William Pepperrell]] mounted an expedition of 90 vessels and 4,000 men against Louisbourg in 1745.<ref name="Irvin2002">{{cite book|first1=Benjamin |last1=Irvin|title=Samuel Adams: Son of Liberty, Father of Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/samueladamssonof0000irvi|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-513225-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/samueladamssonof0000irvi/page/32 32]}}</ref> Within three months the fortress surrendered. The return of Louisbourg to French control by the peace treaty prompted the British to found [[City of Halifax|Halifax]] in 1749 under [[Edward Cornwallis]].<ref>{{cite book|first1=Thomas H|last1=Raddall|title=Halifax, Warden of the North|publisher=McClelland and Stewart Limited|year=1971|pages=[https://archive.org/details/halifaxwardenofn00radd_1/page/18 18–21]|url=https://archive.org/details/halifaxwardenofn00radd_1/page/18|isbn=978-1-55109-060-3|access-date=January 13, 2011}}</ref> Despite the official cessation of war between the British and French empires with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], the conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued as [[Father Le Loutre's War]].<ref name="Grenier2008b">{{cite book|first1=John |last1=Grenier|title=The far reaches of empire: war in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&pg=PA138YEAR|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-3876-3|pages=138–140|year=2008}}</ref>
[[File:Acadian deportation map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A migratory map showing the movements of Acadian deportees during the [[Expulsion of the Acadians|Great Upheaval]]]]
The British ordered the Acadians expelled from their lands in 1755 during the [[French and Indian War]], an event called the [[Expulsion of the Acadians]] or {{lang|fr|le Grand Dérangement}}.<ref name="Jobb2008">{{cite book|first1=Dean W. |last1=Jobb|title=The Acadians: A People's Story of Exile and Triumph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzksi8dKPCsC&pg=PP296|year=2008|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-15772-5|page=296}}</ref> The "expulsion" resulted in approximately 12,000 Acadians being shipped to destinations throughout Britain's North America and to France, Quebec and the French Caribbean colony of [[Saint-Domingue]].<ref name="Lacoursière1996">{{cite book|first1=Jacques |last1=Lacoursière|title=Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à 1896. III|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbrS3bYEzKoC&pg=PP270|year=1996|publisher=Les éditions du Septentrion|isbn=978-2-89448-066-3|page=270}}</ref> The first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began with the [[Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)]] and the second wave began after the final [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)]]. Many of the Acadians settled in southern [[Louisiana]], creating the [[Cajun]] culture there.<ref name=Jacques>{{cite book|first1=Jacques |last1=Lacoursière|title=Histoire populaire du Québec: De 1841 à 1896. III|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbrS3bYEzKoC&pg=PA270|access-date=May 21, 2013|year=1996|publisher=Les éditions du Septentrion|language=fr|isbn=978-2-89448-066-3|page=270}}</ref> Some Acadians managed to hide and others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but they were far outnumbered by a new migration of [[New England Planters]] who settled on the former lands of the Acadians and transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of occupation for the British to a settled colony with stronger ties to New England.<ref name=Jacques/> Britain eventually gained control of Quebec City after the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] and the [[Battle of Fort Niagara]] in 1759, and finally [[Montreal Campaign|captured Montreal]] in 1760.<ref name="Fryer1993">{{cite book|first1=Mary |last1=Beacock Fryer|title=More battlefields of Canada|url=https://archive.org/details/morebattlefields0000frye|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd.|isbn=978-1-55002-189-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/morebattlefields0000frye/page/161 161]–}}</ref>