Editing Henry III of England (section)

=== End of the Barons' War ===
[[File:BitvaLincoln1217ortho.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|Second Battle of Lincoln]] in 1217, showing the death of [[Thomas, Count of Perche]] (left), by [[Matthew Paris]]<ref name="McGlynn 2013 128–129">{{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|pp=128–129}}</ref>]]

The war was not going well for the loyalists and the new regency government considered retreating to [[Ireland]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=19}}</ref> Prince Louis and the rebel barons were also finding it difficult to make further progress. Despite Louis controlling [[Westminster Abbey]], he could not be crowned king because the [[Christianity in England|English Church]] and the Papacy backed Henry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=301}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=19–21}}</ref> John's death had defused some of the rebel concerns, and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aurell|2003|p=30}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=19–21}}</ref> In a bid to take advantage of this, Henry encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands, and reissued a version of Magna Carta, albeit having first removed some of the clauses, including those unfavourable to the Papacy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=21–22, 24–25}}</ref> The move was not successful and opposition to Henry's new government hardened.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=25}}</ref>

In February 1217, Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=27}}</ref> In his absence, arguments broke out between Louis's French and English followers, and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry's war against the rebels was a religious crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=28–29}}</ref>{{Efn|The status of Henry's campaign was slightly ambiguous. Pope Innocent IV declared the rebels to be worse than Saracens, but they were not considered heretics; the crusader cross was to be worn on the chest, rather than on the more conventional shoulder; joining this crusade was not the equivalent of fighting in the east, or replace an existing vow. It provided a convenient excuse for many rebels to switch back to the King's side without suffering a loss of face.<ref>{{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=198}}; {{Harvnb|Tyerman|1996|pp=141–142}}</ref>}} This resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement, and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry's favour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=27–28}}</ref> Louis returned at the end of April and reinvigorated his campaign, splitting his forces into two groups, sending one north to besiege [[Lincoln Castle]] and keeping one in the south to capture [[Dover Castle]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=31, 36}}</ref> When he learnt that Louis had divided his army, William Marshal gambled on defeating the rebels in a single battle.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=36}}</ref> William marched north and attacked [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] on 20 May 1217; entering through a side gate, he [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|took the city]] in a sequence of fierce street battles and sacked the buildings.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=36–40}}; {{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=302}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=216}}</ref> Large numbers of senior rebels were captured, and historian David Carpenter considers the battle to be "one of the most decisive in English history".<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=39–40}}</ref>{{Efn|The French rebel leader, Thomas the Count of Perche, was one of the few actual casualties among the rebel leadership, and died as the result of an accidental spear-thrust through the visor, and after the battle, his death was deeply regretted by both sides.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=302}}</ref>}}

[[Image:EustaceTheMonk.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|The [[Battle of Sandwich (1217)|Battle of Sandwich]] in 1217, showing the capture of the French flagship and the execution of [[Eustace the Monk]] (r) and the support of the English bishops (l), by Matthew Paris<ref name="McGlynn 2013 128–129"/>]]

In the aftermath of Lincoln, the loyalist campaign stalled and only recommenced in late June when the victors had arranged the ransoming of their prisoners.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=41}}</ref> Meanwhile, support for Louis's campaign was diminishing in France, and he concluded that the war in England was lost.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173">{{Harvnb|Hallam|Everard|2001|p=173}}</ref>{{Efn|Even in France, Louis was increasingly perceived to be conducting an illegitimate war against a child king who had been popularly appointed by the local barons.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173"/>}} Louis negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala, under which he would renounce his claim to the English throne; in return, his followers would be given back their lands, any sentences of [[excommunication]] would be lifted and Henry's government would promise to enforce Magna Carta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=41–42}}</ref> The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels, particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion.<ref name=Carpenter1990P42>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=42}}</ref> In the absence of a settlement, Louis remained in London with his remaining forces.<ref name=Carpenter1990P42/>

On 24 August 1217, a French fleet arrived off the coast of [[Sandwich, Kent|Sandwich]], bringing soldiers, [[siege engine]]s, and fresh supplies to Louis.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=43–44}}</ref> [[Hubert de Burgh]], Henry's [[justiciar]], set sail to intercept it, resulting in the [[Battle of Sandwich (1217)|Battle of Sandwich]].<ref name=Carpenter1990P44>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|p=44}}</ref> De Burgh's fleet scattered the French and captured their flagship, commanded by [[Eustace the Monk]], who was promptly executed.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/> When the news reached Louis, he entered into renewed peace negotiations.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/>

Henry and Louis, together with Henry's mother, Cardinal Guala and William Marshal, came to an agreement on the final [[Treaty of Lambeth]] on 12 and 13 September 1217.<ref name=Carpenter1990P44/> The treaty was similar to the first peace offer but excluded the rebel clergy, whose lands and appointments remained forfeit.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=44–45}}</ref> Louis accepted a gift of ~£6,700 to speed his departure from England, and promised to try to persuade King Philip to return Henry's lands in France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|1990|pp=44–46}}</ref>{{Efn|name=Money|Medieval England principally used silver pennies; larger sums of silver pennies were typically expressed in financial accounts as pounds (240 pennies) or marks (160 pennies). This article presents all contemporary sums in pounds. It is impossible to accurately estimate the modern equivalent value of 13th century money; for comparison, in the early part of the 13th century, £66 was close to the average annual income of a poorer baron; £6,666 in 1216 was almost 25 per cent of the Crown's revenue for the year; shortly after Henry's death, his son Edward I spent approximately £80,000 on his castle-building programme in [[North Wales]], an immense outlay for the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=40}}; {{Harvnb|Pounds|1994|pp=147, 176}}; {{Harvnb|McGlynn|2013|p=237}}</ref>}} Louis left England as agreed and joined the [[Albigensian Crusade]] in the south of France.<ref name="Hallam 2001 173"/>