Editing Henri Bergson (section)

===Education and career===
[[File:Bergson1889Diss2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience'' (Dissertation, 1889)]]
[[File:Bergson1889Diss1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit'' (Dissertation, 1889)]]
Bergson attended the Lycée Fontanes (known as the [[Lycée Condorcet]] 1870–1874 and 1883–present) in Paris from 1868 to 1878. He had previously received a Jewish religious education,<ref>Lawlor, Leonard and Moulard Leonard, Valentine, "Henri Bergson", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/entries/bergson/></ref> but lost his faith between the ages of 14 and 16. According to Hude (1990), this moral crisis is tied to his discovery of the theory of [[evolution]], according to which humanity shares a common ancestry with modern [[primate]]s, a process construed as needing no creative deity.<ref>Henri Hude, ''Bergson'', Paris, Editions Universitaires, 1990, 2 volumes, quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau in her [http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/cours_3.jsp 21 December 2006 course] at the College of France</ref> 

At the lycée, Bergson won a prize for his scientific work and another, in 1877, when he was 18, for the solution of a mathematical problem. His solution was published the next year in ''[[Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques]].''<ref>{{cite book|title=Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques |series=2 |number=17 |year=1878 |page=268 |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3c_AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA268 |access-date=15 March 2018|last1=Gerono |first1=Camille Christopher |last2=Terquem |first2=Oiry |last3=Laisant |first3=Charles-Ange |last4=Bricard |first4=Raoul |last5=Boulanger |first5=Auguste }}</ref> It was his first published work. After some hesitation about whether to pursue the sciences or the [[humanities]], he decided on the latter, to his teachers' dismay.<ref name="Fagot-Largeau">[[Anne Fagot-Largeau]], [http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm 21 December 2006 course] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206183341/http://www.college-de-france.fr/default/EN/all/phi_sci/p1184676830986.htm|date=6 February 2009}} at the [[College of France]] (audio file of the course)</ref> When he was 19, he entered the [[École Normale Supérieure]] (during this period, he read [[Herbert Spencer]]).<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/> He obtained there the degree of ''[[licence ès lettres]]'', and then an ''[[Agrégation|agrégation de philosophie]]'' in 1881 from the [[University of Paris]].

The same year, he received a teaching appointment at the lycée in [[Angers]], the ancient capital of [[Duchy of Anjou|Anjou]]. Two years later he settled at the {{Interlanguage link|Lycée Blaise-Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand)|fr}} in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], capital of the [[Puy-de-Dôme]] [[département]].

The year after his arrival at Clermont-Ferrand, Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an edition of extracts from [[Lucretius]], with a critical study of ''De Rerum Natura'', issued as ''Extraits de Lucrèce'', and of Lucretius's [[materialism|materialist]] [[cosmology]] (1884), repeated editions of which attest to its value in promoting Classics among French youth. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He crafted his dissertation, ''Time and Free Will'', which was submitted, along with a short [[Latin]] thesis on [[Aristotle]] (''Quid Aristoteles de loco senserit'', "On the Concept of Place in Aristotle") for his [[doctoral degree]], which was awarded by the [[University of Paris]] in 1889. The work was published in the same year by [[Félix Alcan]]. He also gave courses in Clermont-Ferrand on the [[Pre-Socratic Philosophy|Pre-Socratics]], in particular [[Heraclitus]].<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/>

Bergson dedicated ''Time and Free Will'' to [[Jules Lachelier]] (1832–1918), then [[Minister of National Education (France)|public education minister]], a disciple of [[Félix Ravaisson]] and the author of ''On the Founding of [[inductive reasoning|Induction]]'' (''Du fondement de l'induction'', 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism". According to [[Louis de Broglie]], ''Time and Free Will'' "antedates by forty years the ideas of [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]] on the physical interpretation of wave mechanics."<ref>[[Louis de Broglie]], (1969[1947]) ''The concept of contemporary physics and Bergson’s Ideas on Time and Motion'', in Bergson and the evolution of physics, Pete A.Y. Gunter (Ed. and trans.) Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, p47.</ref>

Bergson settled again in Paris in 1888,<ref>''Henri Bergson: Key Writings'', ed. Keith Ansell Pearson and John Mullarkey. London: Continuum, 2002, p. ix.</ref> and after teaching for some months at the [[municipal college]], known as the ''College Rollin'', he received an appointment at the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]], where he remained for eight years. There, he read [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and gave a course on his theories.<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/> Although Bergson had previously endorsed [[Lamarckism]] and its theory of the [[inheritance of acquired characters|heritability of acquired characteristics]], he came to prefer Darwin's hypothesis of gradual variation, which were more compatible with his continual vision of life.<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/>

In 1896, Bergson published his second major work, ''Matter and Memory''. This rather difficult work investigates the function of the brain and undertakes an analysis of perception and memory, leading up to a careful consideration of the relationship of body and mind. Bergson spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in ''Matter and Memory'', which shows thorough acquaintance with the extensive pathological investigations carried out during the period.

In 1898, Bergson became ''[[maître de conférences]]'' at his alma mater, École Normale Supérieure, and later that year was promoted to a professorship. The year 1900 saw him installed as a professor at the [[Collège de France]], where he accepted the Chair of [[Greek philosophy|Greek and Roman Philosophy]] in succession to {{Interlanguage link|Charles Lévêque|fr}}.

At the first [[International Congress of Philosophy]], held in Paris during the first five days of August 1900, Bergson read a short paper, "Psychological Origins of the Belief in the Law of Causality" (''Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité''). In 1900, [[Felix Alcan]] published a work that had previously appeared in the ''[[Revue de Paris]]'', ''[[Laughter (book)|Laughter]]'' (''Le rire''), one of the most important of Bergson's minor works. This essay on the meaning of comedy stemmed from a lecture he had given in his early days in Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, especially its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life. The paper's main thesis is that laughter is a corrective evolved to make social life possible for human beings. People laugh at those who fail to adapt to society's demands of society if it seems their failure is akin to an inflexible mechanism. Comic authors have exploited this human tendency to laugh in various ways, and what is common to them is the idea that the comic consists in "something mechanical encrusted on the living".<ref>p. 39</ref><ref>Seth Benedict Graham ''[http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083634/http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf |date=16 January 2013 }}'', 2003, p. 2</ref>

In 1901, the [[Académie des sciences morales et politiques]] elected Bergson as a member. In 1903 he contributed to the ''[[Revue de métaphysique et de morale]]'' an essay, ''[[Introduction to Metaphysics (Bergson)|Introduction to Metaphysics]]'' (''Introduction à la metaphysique''), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books. He detailed in this essay his philosophical program, realized in the ''Creative Evolution''.<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/>

On the death of [[Gabriel Tarde]], the sociologist and philosopher, in 1904, Bergson succeeded him as Chair of Modern Philosophy. From 4 to 8 September of that year, he visited [[Geneva]], attending the Second International Congress of Philosophy, when he lectured on ''The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion'' (Le cerveau et la pensée : une illusion philosophique). An illness prevented his visiting Germany to attend the Third Congress held at [[Heidelberg]]. In these years, Bergson strongly influenced [[Jacques Maritain]], perhaps even saving Maritain and his wife Raïssa from suicide.<ref>[https://plto.stanford.edu/entries/maritain Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Jacques Maritain]{{Dead link|date=July 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bergsonian Philosophy and Thomism |url=https://undpress.nd.edu/9780268021528/bergsonian-philosophy-and-thomism |access-date=2023-07-15 |website=Notre Dame University Press |language=en-US}}</ref>

Bergson's third major work, ''Creative Evolution'', the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907. Pierre Imbart de la Tour remarked that ''Creative Evolution'' was a milestone of a new direction in thought.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gunn |first=John Alexander |title=Bergson and His Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Kessinger |isbn=978-1-4191-0968-3 |edition=Fac-sim |location=S.L.}}</ref> By 1918, [[Alcan]], the publisher, had issued 21 editions, making an average of two editions ''per annum'' for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles but among the general public.

At that time, Bergson had already extensively studied biology, including the theory of [[fecundation]] (as shown in the first chapter of the ''Creative Evolution''), which had only recently emerged, ca. 1885 – no small feat for a philosopher specializing in the [[history of philosophy]], in particular Greek and Roman philosophy.<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/> He also most certainly had read, apart from Darwin, [[Haeckel]], from whom he retained his idea of a unity of life and of the ecological solidarity between all living beings,<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/> as well as [[Hugo de Vries]], from whom he quoted his [[mutation theory]] of evolution (which he opposed, preferring Darwin's gradualism).<ref name=Fagot-Largeau/> He also quoted [[Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard]], the successor of [[Claude Bernard]] at the Chair of Experimental Medicine in the Collège de France.

Bergson served as a juror with [[Florence Meyer Blumenthal]] in awarding the [[Prix Blumenthal]], a grant given between 1919 and 1954 to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.<ref name="FMBlumenthal">{{Cite web
  | title = Florence Meyer Blumenthal
  | publisher = Jewish Women's Archive, Michele Siegel
  | url = http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/blumenthal-florence-meyer}}</ref>