Editing Guam (section)

=== American era ===
{{further|Capture of Guam}}
[[File: Main street of Agana or Hagåtña, Guam (1899-1900).jpg|thumb|left|The main street of [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]] {{circa|1899}}–1900.]]
After almost four centuries as part of the [[Kingdom of Spain]], the United States [[Capture of Guam|occupied]] the island following Spain's defeat in the 1898 [[Spanish–American War]], as part of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris of 1898]]. Guam was transferred to the [[United States Navy]] control on December 23, 1898, by [[s: Executive Order 108-A|Executive Order 108-A]] from 25th President [[William McKinley]].<ref>Rottman, G. (2004) ''Guam 1941 & 1944: Loss and Reconquest''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]</ref>

The [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] assumed administrative control, with Captain Richard P. Leary appointed as the first naval governor in 1899. This era marked the introduction of American governance structures and cultural influences to the island.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard P. Leary (DD-684) |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/r/richard-p-leary.html |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=public1.nhhcaws.local |language=en-US}}</ref>

The naval administration prioritized the development of Guam's infrastructure to support its strategic military position in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. One notable project was the establishment of a coaling station to service naval vessels traveling between [[Hawaii]] and the [[Philippines]]. Additionally, efforts were made to improve the island's roads, sanitation systems, and public health facilities. Educational reforms were also introduced, including the establishment of public schools with English as the medium of instruction, aiming to assimilate the local [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]] population into American culture.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=War in the Pacific NHP: Administrative History (Chapter 3) |url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/wapa/adhi/adhi3.htm |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=www.nps.gov}}</ref>

Despite these developments, the Chamorro people faced significant challenges under the naval administration. Civil liberties were limited, and the local population had minimal input in governmental decisions. Recognizing these constraints, Chamorro leaders petitioned for U.S. citizenship and greater political autonomy as early as 1901, though these efforts were largely unsuccessful during this period.<ref name=":0" />

These advocacy efforts continued over the years, with Chamorro representatives seeking citizenship and self-governance. For instance, in 1936, delegates Baltazar J. Bordallo and Francisco B. Leon Guerrero traveled to [[Washington, D.C.]], to personally petition for Chamorro citizenship.  Despite these persistent efforts, substantial political reforms were not achieved during this period.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magazine |first=Smithsonian |last2=Herman |first2=Doug |title=A Brief, 500-Year History of Guam |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/brief-500-year-history-guam-180964508/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

==== World War I ====
On December 10, 1914, the [[SMS Cormoran (1914)|SMS ''Cormoran'']], a German armed [[merchant raider]], was forced to seek port at [[Apra Harbor]] on the U.S. territory of Guam after running short on coal as a result of being pursued by the Japanese.<ref>{{Cite web |last=PacificWrecks.com |title=Pacific Wrecks |url=https://pacificwrecks.com/ship/german/sms_cormoran.html |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=pacificwrecks.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SMS Cormoran II |url=https://assets.simpleviewinc.com/sv-guam/image/upload/v1/cms_resources/clients/guam/PR_3_The_History_of_the_SMS_Cormoran_II_1cb45612-4b62-42b5-b14a-045f4578fcff.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-19 |title=Where the United States Entered World War I: The SMS Cormoran - NAUI Worldwide |url=https://www.naui.org/where-the-united-states-entered-world-war-i-the-sms-cormoran/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=www.naui.org |language=en-US}}</ref> The United States, which was neutral at the time refused to supply provisions sufficient for the ''Cormoran'' to make a German port so the ship and her crew were interned until 1917.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1931-08-01 |title=Destruction of S.M.S. "Cormoran" |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1931/august/destruction-sms-cormoran |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=U.S. Naval Institute |language=en}}</ref>

On the morning of April 7, 1917, word reached Guam by telegraph cable that the [[United States in World War I|U.S. Congress had declared war on Germany]]. The Naval [[Governor of Guam]], [[Roy Campbell Smith]], sent two officers to inform the ''Cormoran'' that a state of war existed between the two countries, that the crew were now [[German prisoners of war in the United States|prisoners of war]], and that the ship must be surrendered. Meanwhile, the [[USS Supply (1872)|USS ''Supply'']] blocked the entrance to Apra Harbor to prevent any attempt to flee. In a separate boat, the two officers were accompanied by a barge commanded by Lt. W.A. Hall, who was designated prize master, and had brought 18 sailors and 15 Marines from the barracks at [[Sumay, Guam|Sumay]].<ref name="sextant">{{cite web |last1=Conrad |first1=Dennis |date=March 28, 2017 |title=The War Begins: The United States Navy and the German Cruiser Cormoran |url=https://usnhistory.navylive.dodlive.mil/2017/03/28/the-war-begins-the-united-states-navy-and-the-german-cruiser-cormoran/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319064717/https://usnhistory.navylive.dodlive.mil/2017/03/28/the-war-begins-the-united-states-navy-and-the-german-cruiser-cormoran/ |archive-date=March 19, 2021 |access-date=March 6, 2021 |website=The Sextant |publisher=Histories and Archives Division, Naval History and Heritage Command}}</ref><ref name="Hoppe">{{cite web |last1=Hoppe |first1=Jon |date=October 1, 2015 |title=The Destruction of the S.M.S. Cormoran and the First U.S. Shot Fired in World War I |url=https://www.navalhistory.org/2015/10/01/the-destruction-of-the-s-m-s-cormoran |access-date=March 6, 2021 |website=Naval History Blog |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |archive-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930030833/https://www.navalhistory.org/2015/10/01/the-destruction-of-the-s-m-s-cormoran |url-status=live }}</ref>

Seeing a launch from ''Cormoran'' hauling a barge of supplies back shore, Hall ordered shots fired across the bow of the launch until it hove to. Meanwhile, the two officers reached ''Cormoran'' and informed Captain [[Adalbert Zuckschwerdt]] of the situation. Zuckschwerdt agreed to surrender his crew but refused to turn over the ship. The U.S. officers informed Zuckschwerdt that the ''Cormoran'' would be treated as an enemy combatant and left to inform Governor Smith of the situation. Unbeknownst to the Americans, the Germans had secreted an explosive device in the ship's coal bunker. Minutes after the Americans left, an explosion aboard ''Cormoran'' hurled debris across the harbor and her crew began abandoning ship. The two American boats and USS ''Supply'' immediately began to recover German sailors from the water, saving all but seven of the roughly 370 ''Cormoran'' crew. This incident, including the warning shots against the launch, accounted for the first violent action of the [[United States in World War I]], first shots fired by the U.S. against Germany in World War I, the first German prisoners of war captured by the U.S., and the first Germans killed in action by the U.S. in World War I.<ref name="Rogers1995">{{cite book |author=Robert F. Rogers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C&pg=PA139 |title=Destiny's Landfall: A History of Guam |date=January 1995 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1678-0 |pages=139–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Tyler |date=October 17, 2020 |title=A Rock Springs man fired the first American shot of World War I |url=https://wyo4news.com/news/a-rock-springs-man-fired-the-first-american-shot-of-world-war-i/ |access-date=March 6, 2021 |website=Wyo4News |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406004056/https://wyo4news.com/news/a-rock-springs-man-fired-the-first-american-shot-of-world-war-i/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== World War II ====
[[File:3rd Battalion 3rd Marines Agana.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] walk through the ruins of Hagåtña, July 1944.]]
During [[World War II]], the [[Empire of Japan]] invaded and occupied Guam in the [[Battle of Guam (1941)|1941 Battle of Guam]] on December 8, at the same time as the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. The Japanese renamed Guam {{lang|ja-Latn|Ōmiya-jima}} (Great Shrine Island). The [[Japanese occupation of Guam]] lasted about 31 months. During this period, the indigenous people of Guam were subjected to beatings, forced labor, family separation, concentration camps, massacres, beheadings and rape.<ref>[http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/197751 War Restitution Act : hearing before the Subcommittee on Insular and International Affairs of the Co...|National Library of Australia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406001230/http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/197751|date=April 6, 2010}}. Catalogue.nla.gov.au (September 20, 1994). Retrieved June 13, 2012.</ref><ref>"[http://www.doi.gov/oia/press/2004/72104guam_war_claims.cfm Statement of David B. Cohen Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Insular Affairs Before the House Committee on Resources Regarding the Report of the Guam War Claims Review Commission|July 21, 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120023031/http://www.doi.gov/oia/press/2004/72104guam_war_claims.cfm|date=January 20, 2013}}." ''[[Office of Insular Affairs]]''. Retrieved September 19, 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Higuchi|first=Wakako|title=The Japanisation Policy for the Chamorros of Guam, 1941–1944|journal=The Journal of Pacific History|year=2001|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/The_Japanisation_Policy_for_the_Chamorros_of_Guam,_1941-1944.pdf|doi=10.1080/00223340120049424|volume=36|issue=1|pages=19–35|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021514/http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/The_Japanisation_Policy_for_the_Chamorros_of_Guam%2C_1941-1944.pdf|archive-date=January 20, 2013}}</ref><ref name="books.google.com">Werner Gruhl, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA102 Imperial Japan's World War Two, 1931–1945] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101014017/https://books.google.com/books?id=ow5Wlmu9MPQC&pg=PA102|date=January 1, 2016}}'', Transaction Publishers, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0352-8}}</ref>

During the nearly three years of occupation approximately 1,100 Chamorros were killed, according to later US [[United States Congress|Congressional]] committee testimony in 2004. Some historians estimate that war violence killed 10% of Guam's then 20,000 population.<ref name="books.google.com"/> The United States returned and recaptured the island in the [[Battle of Guam (1944)|1944 Battle of Guam]] from July 21 to August 10; July 21 became a territorial holiday, [[Liberation Day (Guam)|Liberation Day]].

==== Post-war ====
After World War II, the [[Guam Organic Act of 1950]] established Guam as an [[Territories of the United States|unincorporated organized territory of the United States]], provided for the structure of the island's civilian government, and granted the people U.S. citizenship. The Governor of Guam was federally appointed until 1968 when the [[Guam Elective Governor Act]] provided for the office's popular election.<ref>{{cite book|first=Robert F.|last=Rogers|title=Destiny's Landfall: A History of Guam|year=1995|place=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}</ref>{{rp|242}} Since Guam is not a U.S. state, U.S. citizens residing on Guam are not allowed to vote for president and their congressional representative is a non-voting member.<ref name=" Rogers2"/>

They do, however, vote for party delegates in presidential primaries.<ref name="Curry">{{cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna24839059|publisher=[[NBC News]]|title=Nominating, but not voting for president: Clinton-Obama struggle spotlights Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico|first1=Tom|last1=Curry|date=May 28, 2008|access-date=August 19, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815080233/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/24839059/ns/politics-decision_08/t/nominating-not-voting-president|archive-date=August 15, 2016}}</ref> In 1969, [[1969 Guamanian unification with the Northern Mariana Islands referendum|a referendum on unification with the Northern Mariana Islands]] was held and rejected.<ref>[http://www.sudd.ch/event.php?lang=en&id=mp011969 Northern Mariana Islands, 9 November 1969: Status] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415165235/https://sudd.ch/event.php?lang=en&id=mp011969 |date=April 15, 2021 }} Direct Democracy {{in lang|de}}</ref> During the 1970s, [[Maryly Van Leer Peck]] started an engineering program, expanded [[University of Guam]], and founded [[Guam Community College]].<ref name="Rottman">Rottman, G. (2004) ''Guam 1941 & 1944: Loss and Reconquest''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1-84176-811-3}}</ref>{{rp|17}} In the same period, [[Alby Mangels]], Australian adventurer and filmmaker of ''[[World Safari]]'' visited Guam during his six-year escapade on the leg of his voyage through the Pacific aboard the ''Klaraborg''.

The removal of Guam's security clearance by President John F. Kennedy in 1963 allowed for the development of a [[tourism]] industry. When the United States closed [[U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay]] and [[Clark Air Base]] bases in the [[Philippines]] after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990s, many of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The [[1997 Asian financial crisis]], which hit Japan particularly hard, severely affected Guam's tourism industry. Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy. Economic recovery was further hampered by devastation from super typhoons [[Typhoon Paka|Paka]] in 1997 and [[Typhoon Pongsona|Pongsona]] in 2002, as well as the effects of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 terrorist attacks]] and the crash of [[Korean Air Flight 801]] on tourism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tourism |first=United States Congress Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce, and |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wflkLlQ3r1QC&dq=guam++effects+of+the+September+11+terrorist+attacks+on+tourism&pg=PA71 |title=Terrorism's Effect on U.S. Tourism: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Foreign Commerce, and Tourism of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Seventh Congress, First Session, October 12, 2001 |date=2004 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-16-071313-2 |language=en |access-date=December 17, 2022 |archive-date=April 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406194352/https://books.google.com/books?id=wflkLlQ3r1QC&dq=guam++effects+of+the+September+11+terrorist+attacks+on+tourism&pg=PA71 |url-status=live }}</ref>