Editing Georgian language (section)

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
On the left are [[Help:IPA|IPA]] symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian [[alphabet]], which is essentially phonemic.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants<ref name="ipashosted">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=263}}</ref><ref name="GMU">{{cite web |title=Native Phonetic Inventory: georgian |url=http://accent.gmu.edu/browse_native.php?function=detail&languageid=23 |access-date=24 August 2019 |website=gmu.edu |publisher=George Mason University}}</ref>
! colspan="2" | &nbsp;
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br/>[[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|მ}}
| {{IPA link|n}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ნ}}
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ფ}}
| {{IPA link|tʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|თ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kʰ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ქ}}
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ბ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
| {{IPA link|d}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|დ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|გ}}<sup>7, 8, 10</sup>
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|პ}}
| {{IPA link|tʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ტ}}
|
| {{IPA link|kʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|კ}}
| {{IPA link|qʼ}}<sup>3</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ყ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>(aspirated)</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡sʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ც}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}}<sup>1</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჩ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced</small>
|
| {{IPA link|d͡z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ძ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჯ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>ejective</small>
|
| {{IPA link|t͡sʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|წ}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃʼ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჭ}}
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
|
| {{IPA link|s}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ს}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|შ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|x}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ხ}}
| {{IPA link|h}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჰ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! <small>voiced </small>
| {{IPA link|v}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ვ}}<sup>6</sup>
| {{IPA link|z}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ზ}}
| {{IPA link|ʒ}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ჟ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ɣ}} <sup>2</sup> &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ღ}}
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Vibrant]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|რ}}<sup>4,9</sup>
|
|
|
|
|- style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ლ}}<sup>5</sup>
|
|
|
|
|}

# Opinions differ on the aspiration of {{IPA|/t͡sʰ, t͡ʃʰ/}}, as it is non-contrastive.{{cn|date=April 2017}}
# Opinions differ on how to classify {{IPAslink|x}} and {{IPAslink|ɣ}}; {{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990}} classifies them as post-velar, {{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995}} argues that they range from velar to uvular according to context.
# The uvular ejective stop is commonly realized as a uvular ejective fricative {{IPAblink|χʼ}} but it can also be {{IPAblink|qʼ}}, {{IPAblink|ʔ}}, or {{IPAblink|qχʼ}}, they are in free variation.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=256}}</ref>
# {{IPAslink|r}} is realized as an alveolar tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} <ref name=":0">{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=261}}</ref> though {{IPAblink|r}} occurs in free variation.
# {{IPAslink|l}} is pronounced as a velarized {{IPAblink|ɫ}} before back vowels; it is pronounced as {{IPAblink|l}} in the environment of front vowels.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|pp=17–18}}</ref>
# {{IPAslink|v}} is realized in most contexts as a bilabial fricative {{IPAblink|β}} or {{IPAblink|v}},<ref name=":1">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1995|p=21}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> but has the following allophones.<ref name=":0" />
## before voiceless consonants, it is realized as {{IPAblink|f}} or {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.
## after voiceless consonants it is also voiceless and has been interpreted either as labialization of the preceding consonant {{IPAblink|ʷ}} or simply as {{IPAblink|ɸ}}.
## whether it is realized as labialization after voiced consonants is debated.
## word-initially before the vowel /u/ and sometimes before other consonants it may be deleted entirely.
#In initial positions, {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} are pronounced as a weakly voiced {{IPA|[b̥, d̥, ɡ̊]}}.<ref name=":2">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=15}}</ref>
#In word-final positions, {{IPA|/b, d, ɡ/}} may be devoiced and aspirated to {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> 
#/r/ may be dropped in CrC contexts in colloquial speech.<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312661766_r_drop_in_Colloquial_Georgian /r/ drop in Colloquial Georgian]</ref> 
#Word-final /b, d, ɡ/ may be realized as unreleased stops [b̚, d̚, ɡ̚] before another obstruent at word boundaries.<ref name=":8" />

Former {{IPA|/qʰ/}} ({{lang|ka|ჴ}}) has merged with {{IPA|/x/}} ({{lang|ka|ხ}}), leaving only the latter.

The glottalization of the ejectives is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the [[tenuis consonant|tenuis stops]] in foreign words and names with the ejectives.{{cn|date=June 2024}}

The coronal occlusives ({{IPA|/tʰ tʼ d n/}}, not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental".<ref name="ipashosted"/>

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel phonemes<ref name=":5">{{Harvcoltxt|Testelets|2020|p=497}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Harvcoltxt|Putkaradze|Mikautadze|2014|p=53}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Harvcoltxt|Hewitt|1987|p=19}}</ref><ref name=":3" />
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ი}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|უ}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ე}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ო}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}} &nbsp; {{lang|ka|ა}}
|
|}Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [{{IPA link|i}}], [{{IPA link|e̞}}], [{{IPA link|ä}}], [{{IPA link|o̞}}], [{{IPA link|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Canepari|2007|p=385}}</ref>

Aronson describes their realizations as [{{IPA link|i̞}}], [{{IPA link|e̞}}], [{{IPA link|ä}}] (but "slightly fronted"), [{{IPA link|o̞}}], [{{IPA link|u̞}}].<ref name=":3">{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=18}}</ref>

Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [{{IPA link|i}}], [{{IPA link|ɛ}}], [{{IPA link|ɑ}}], [{{IPA link|ɔ}}], [{{IPA link|u}}].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Shosted|Chikovani|2006|p=262}}</ref>

Allophonically, [{{IPA link|ə}}] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in {{IPA|/dɡas/}} {{IPA|[dəɡäs]}}.<ref>{{Cite conference |last=McCoy |first=Priscilla |date=1999 |title=Harmony and Sonority in Georgian |url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/icphs-proceedings/ICPhS1999/papers/p14_0447.pdf |conference=14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences}}</ref> 

In casual speech, /i/ preceded or followed by a vowel may be realized as [{{IPA link|i̯}}]~[{{IPA link|j}}].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Აკადემია |first1=Საქართველოს Მეცნიერებათა Ეროვნული |url=https://iverieli.nplg.gov.ge/handle/1234/436653 |title=ქართული ენა : ენციკლოპედია |last2=Რედაქცია |first2=Ქართული Ენციკლოპედიის Ირაკლი Აბაშიძის Სახელობის Მთავარი Სამეცნიერო |last3=Ინსტიტუტი |first3=Არნოლდ Ჩიქობავას Სახელობის Ენათმეცნიერების |date=2008 |publisher=თბილისი |isbn=978-99928-20-34-6 |pages=151–173 |language=ka}}</ref> 

Phrase-final unstressed vowels are sometimes partially reduced.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=Gamq'relidze |first1=Nana |url=https://www.tsu.ge/data/file_db/faculty_humanities/fonetika%201.pdf |title=ქართული ნორმატიული და დიალექტური მეტყველების ფონეტიკური ანალიზი |last2=K'ot'et'ishvili |first2=Shota |last3=Lezhava |first3=Ivane |last4=Lortkipanidze |first4=Luiza |last5=Javakhidze |first5=L |date=2006 |publisher=Nek'eri |location=Tbilisi |pages=6 |language=ka |trans-title=A phonetic analysis of Georgian normative and dialectal speech}}</ref>

===Prosody===
[[Prosody (linguistics)|Prosody]] in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words.<ref name=":3"/> Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of [[pitch accent]]s on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jun|Vicenik|Lofstedt|2007}}</ref>

According to Borise,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Borise |first1=Lena |last2=Zientarski |first2=Xavier |chapter=Word Stress and Phrase Accent in Georgian |date=2018-06-18 |title=6th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2018) |chapter-url=https://www.isca-speech.org/archive/tal_2018/borise18_tal.html |language=en |pages=207–211 |doi=10.21437/TAL.2018-42}}</ref> Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of a word.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borise |first=Lena |date=2023-02-13 |title=Disentangling word stress and phrasal prosody: A view from Georgian |url=https://www.phondata.org/index.php/pda/article/view/43 |journal=Phonological Data and Analysis |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–37 |doi=10.3765/pda.v5art1.43 |issn=2642-1828 |s2cid=256858909 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kwon |first1=Harim |last2=Chitoran |first2=Ioana |date=2023-11-29 |title=Perception of illusory clusters: the role of native timing |journal=Phonetica |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=153–184 |language=en |doi=10.1515/phon-2023-2005 |issn=1423-0321|doi-access=free |pmid=38012049 }}</ref> long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The consonant phonotactics of Georgian |url=https://www.lotpublications.nl/the-consonant-phonotactics-of-georgian-the-consonant-phonotactics-of-georgian}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Gamq'relidze |first1=Nana |url=https://www.tsu.ge/data/file_db/faculty_humanities/fonetika%201.pdf |title=ქართული ნორმატიული და დიალექტური მეტყველების ფონეტიკური ანალიზი |last2=K'ot'et'ishvili |first2=Shota |last3=Lezhava |first3=Ivane |last4=Lortkipanidze |first4=Luiza |last5=Javakhidze |first5=L |publisher=Nek'eri |year=2006 |location=Tbilisi |pages=7 |language=ka |trans-title=A phonetic analysis of Georgian normative and dialectical speech}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lomashvili |first=Leila A. |date=2015-03-20 |title=Acquiring verbal morphology in Georgian |url=https://www.academia.edu/109476032 |journal=Language Typology and Universals|volume=68 |pages=87–105 |doi=10.1515/stuf-2015-0005 }}</ref> 

According to Gamq'relidze et al, quadrisyllabic words may be exceptionally stressed on their second syllable.<ref name=":9" /> Stressed vowels in Georgian have slightly longer duration, more intensity, and higher pitch compared to unstressed vowels.<ref name=":9" /> 

Some Georgian dialects have distinctive stress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stress in the dialects |url=https://georgian.se/kartuli/GeoGrammar/PHON/11StressDia.html |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=georgian.se}}</ref>

===Phonotactics===
Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. {{lang|ka|'''ბგ'''ერა}} ''bgera'' 'sound', {{lang|ka|'''ცხ'''ოვრება}} ''tskhovreba'' 'life', and {{lang|ka|[[wikt:წყალი|'''წყ'''ალი]]}} ''ts’q’ali'' 'water'.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Aronson|1990|p=33}}</ref> There are also frequent [[consonant cluster]]s, sometimes involving more than six consonants in a row, as may be seen in words like {{lang|ka|[[wikt:გვფრცქვნი|'''გვფრცქვნ'''ი]]}} ''gvprtskvni'' 'you peel us' and {{lang|ka|[[wikt:მწვრთნელი|'''მწვრთნ'''ელი]]}} ''mts’vrtneli'' 'trainer'.

Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have [[creaky voice]] and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Vicenik|2010|p=87}}</ref>