Editing Foreign relations of Zambia (section)

==Regional diplomacy==
[[File:ZM-Lusaka Province.png|thumb|Lusaka province, the capital of Zambia]]
Following the independence of [[Zambia]] on 24 October 1964, the country has lent military aid and support to numerous movements and governments on the international stage. Most notably, Zambia has a history of providing [[military aid]] to combatants and political parties fighting for [[African independence movements|independence]] throughout [[Africa]].<ref>Tordoff, William (1974). ''Politics in Zambia''. North Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 358–362.</ref> The aid that Zambia has provided for African nationalistic movements during the colonial era revolves around both military and diplomatic arrangement for liberation and peace.<ref name="Shaw, Timothy M 1976">Shaw, Timothy M. "The foreign policy system of Zambia". ''African Studies Review'' 19.1 (1976): 31-66.</ref> The [[Zambian Defense Force]] (ZDF), which consists of the Zambian Army, Zambian Air force and Zambian National Service, has played a key part in a multitude of key regional and international conflicts throughout the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>Abrahams, Diane; Cawthra, Gavin; Williams, Rocklyn (2003). ''Ourselves To Know: Civil-military Relations and Defence Transformation in Southern Africa''. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies South Africa. pp. 3–6.</ref> Most notably, the Zambian military has provided counter insurgent efforts during major African confrontations such as the Rhodesian Bush War despite not being the main belligerent.<ref>[[History of Zambia#CITEREFMoorcraftMcLaughlin2008|Moorcraft & McLaughlin 2008]], pp. 140–143</ref>

Zambia has a history of supporting regional liberation movements and Former President [[Kenneth Kaunda]] had previously decreed that "Zambia will not be independent and free until the rest of Africa is Free".<ref>Musonda, Emelda. "Price Zambia Paid for Africa's Liberation". ''Zambia Daily Mail'', www.daily-mail.co.zm/price-zambia-paid-for-africas-liberation/.</ref> Critics{{weasel inline|date=November 2018}} have pointed to Zambia's historical stance of non-engagement and détente as a self-preservation act for a historically authoritarian government.<ref>Shaw, Timothy M. "Dilemmas of Dependence and (Under) Development: conflicts and choices in Zambia's present and prospective foreign policy". ''Africa Today'' 26.4 (1979): 43-65</ref> As a large central nation, the governability of Zambia relies on the stability and diplomacy of nearby states that surround Zambia.<ref name="Shaw, Timothy M 1976"/> Regional stability has allowed Former President Kenneth Kaunda to maintain power in the relatively poor nation for several decades.<ref>Shaw, T. M., & Mugomba, A. T. (1977). The political economy of regional detente: Zambia and southern africa. ''Journal of African Studies, 4''(4), 392</ref>

=== Liberation and political support ===
Zambia received its own liberation from colonialism relatively early from Britain. The newly formed Zambian government under President [[Kenneth Kaunda]] of the [[United National Independence Party|UNIP]] party was active in the liberation and disputes of its neighbors for decades following its independence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Isaacman|first1=Allen|last2=Lalu|first2=Premesh|last3=Nygren|first3=Thomas|date=2005|title=Digitization, History, and the Making of a Postcolonial Archive of Southern African Liberation Struggles: The Aluka Project|journal=Africa Today|volume=52|issue=2|pages=55–77|doi=10.1353/at.2006.0009|jstor=4187703|s2cid=145625678}}</ref> The Zambian government offered shelter for revolutionaries, mediated treaty signings and offered aid and weapons. The continuation of colonial rule in Southern Africa was seen as a slight to Zambia and inherent feelings of African unity drove the new nation to aid its neighbors resist colonial rule.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Taylor & Francis Group|date=May 2007|title=Introduction: White Power, Black Nationalism and the Cold War in Southern Africa|journal=Cold War History|language=en|volume=7|issue=2|pages=165–168|doi=10.1080/14682740701284090|s2cid=218577817|issn=1468-2745}}</ref>

Most notably, Zambia was a haven for revolutionaries from the [[Namibia]] liberation party,<ref name="A 2009">{{Cite thesis|last=A.|first=Williams, Christian|date=2009|title=Exile History: An Ethnography of the SWAPO Camps and the Namibian Nation.|hdl=2027.42/64754|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/64754|type=Thesis|language=en-US|access-date=7 December 2019|archive-date=7 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207155221/https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/64754|url-status=live}}</ref> [[SWAPO|South West African People's Organization (SWAPO)]] and the [[African National Congress]] (ANC) in [[South Africa]]. Zambia provided a rear base for revolutionaries as well as administrative and political aid.

==== SWAPO ====
[[File:Nelson Mandela-2008 cropped.jpg|thumb|Former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela had previously expressed the important role Zambia played in post-apartheid South Africa]]
The [[SWAPO|South West African People's Organization]] (SWAPO) is a political party that was formerly an independence movement based in Namibia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vigne|first=Randolph|date=January 1987|title=SWAPO of Namibia: A movement in exile|journal=Third World Quarterly|language=en|volume=9|issue=1|pages=85–107|doi=10.1080/01436598708419963|issn=0143-6597}}</ref> Due to pressures from within Namibia, SWAPO moved its headquarters and much of its forces into neighboring Zambia in the 1970s. Zambia became a safe haven for the group and SWAPO set up guerrilla training camps and sent exiled members into Zambia.<ref name="A 2009" /> The Shipanga Crisis, so named for senior SWAPO leader [[Andreas Shipanga]], saw the Zambian government help round up thousands of dissidents and critics of the movement.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Leys|first1=Colin|last2=Saul|first2=John S.|date=1994|title=Liberation without Democracy? The Swapo Crisis of 1976|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=20|issue=1|pages=123–147|doi=10.1080/03057079408708390|jstor=2637123}}</ref> SWAPO leaders in Namibia saw growing dissent in the SWAPO installations and guerrilla camps in Zambia, and appealed to then President Kaunda for help. After rounding up thousands of perceived rebels, including Shipanga with the aid of Zambia, SWAPO leadership in Namibia became markedly more authoritarian.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fivush|first=Robyn|date=February 2010|title=Speaking silence: The social construction of silence in autobiographical and cultural narratives|journal=Memory|volume=18|issue=2|pages=88–98|doi=10.1080/09658210903029404|pmid=19565405|s2cid=36928878|issn=0965-8211}}</ref>

==== African National Congress ====
The [[African National Congress]] was an anti-apartheid political party based in South Africa, with close ideological ties to the [[Zambian African National Congress]] of President Kenneth Kaunda.<ref>"South Africa Bans African National Congress". ''African American Registry''. Retrieved 11 November 2018.</ref> When the political party was banned in South Africa by the colonial government, many of its leaders went underground or fled to Zambia.<ref>Macmillan, Hugh. "The African National Congress of South Africa in Zambia: The Culture of Exile and the Changing Relationship with Home, 1964-1990". ''Journal of Southern African Studies'', vol. 35, no. 2, 2009, pp. 303–329.</ref> Lusaka, the capital of Zambia, became the new headquarters for many ANC leaders in exile from their native South Africa. Zambia thus developed a legacy of being the center of activity for South African liberation and allowed exiled leaders to convene and organize. Former South African President Nelson Mandela had expressed the important role that Zambia played in the liberation of their country during the years of exile.<ref>"Nelson Mandela's Work and Freedom Would Have Been Difficult If Not for Zambia". ''[[New African]]'', 31 July 2018</ref> Zambia's policy of liberation through diplomacy and discreet support for African nationalist movements within the region is most poignant in the South African case.<ref>Landsberg, Chris. ''The Quiet Diplomacy of Liberation: International Politics and South Africa's Transition''. Jacana Media, 2004</ref>

==== Zimbabwe ====
Zambia has also provided key support to the liberation struggles of nearby Zimbabwe from their colonial rulers in the 1960s to 1970s.<ref>Scarritt, James R., and Solomon M. Nkiwane. "Friends, neighbors, and former enemies: the evolution of Zambia-Zimbabwe relations in a changing regional context". ''Africa Today'' 43.1 (1996): 7-31.</ref> Specifically, Zambia provided armed and diplomatic support to [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU) and the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) during their struggles against the unrecognized rogue state Rhodesian government in the Rhodesian Bush War.<ref>Chongo, Clarence. ''Decolonising Southern Africa: a history of Zambia's role in Zimbabwe's liberation struggle 1964-1979''. Diss. University of Pretoria, 2</ref> Zambia provided limited arms and training towards Zimbabwe's African nationalist movements, but largely applied diplomatic approaches to induce liberation in Zimbabwe.<ref>Scarritt, James R., Solomon M. Nkiwane, and Henrik Sommer. "A process tracing plausibility probe of uneven democratization's effects on cooperative dyads: The case of Zambia and Zimbabwe 1980–1993". ''International Interactions'' 26.1 (2000): 55-90.</ref> This included multiple visits and discussion between the Rhodesian government and Zambia leaders to negotiate a resolution to the civil strife within the country. Eventually, in 1979, the Rhodesian government submitted to international pressures and conducted elections that lead to majority rule and the eventual renaming of the country as Zimbabwe.<ref>"Insurgency in Rhodesia, 1957–1973: An Account and Assessment". International Institute for Strategic Studies. 1973.</ref>

==== UNITA ====
The [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA) was a party in Angola that served as one of the main belligerents in the Angolan Civil War of 1975 against  [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA).<ref>"Absolute Hell Over There". ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. 17 January 1977. Retrieved 21 November 2018.</ref> Zambia, under Kenneth Kaunda trained and funded UNITA against the MPLA during the civil war. Lusaka remained one of the most ardent supporters of the UNITA African nationalists and UNITA troops trained in Zambia.<ref>Wade. "The Angolan Civil War (1975-2002): A Brief History". ''South African History Online'', 13 July 2017</ref> Since then, Zambia has rescinded its historical support of UNITA and has apologized to the current Angolan government over the historical support of UNITA.<ref>Simuchoba, Arthur (31 October 2011). [https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/africa/2011-10-31-we-are-so-sorry-sata-tells-angola/ "We Are so Sorry, Sata Tells Angola"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209000751/https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/africa/2011-10-31-we-are-so-sorry-sata-tells-angola/ |date=9 February 2022 }}. ''[[TimesLIVE]]''.</ref>

=== Roles in regional disputes ===

==== Angolan Civil War ====
Zambia was key in facilitating talks between [[MPLA|People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA) and the [[UNITA|National Union for the Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA) of the Angolan Civil War.<ref>Vines, Alex. ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process'', 1999. Human Rights Watch.</ref> The Angolan Civil War waged on from 1975 onward and involved massive foreign intervention in the face of the Cold War.<ref>"AfricanCrisis". AfricanCrisis. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2018.</ref> Initiated by Zambia, the Lusaka Protocol was a treaty that attempted to end the Civil War by disarmament and national reconciliation. The treaty was signed in Lusaka on 20 November 1994 and garnered international support, as well as support from [[Zimbabwean President]] [[Robert Mugabe]] and [[South African President]] [[Nelson Mandela]].<ref>"IV. The Lusaka Peace Process". ''Human Rights Watch'', www.hrw.org/reports/1999/angola/Angl998-04.htm.</ref> Ultimately the fighting resumed, and by 1998, the peace process ceased.<ref>Vines, Alex (1999). ''Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process''. Human Rights Watch.</ref>

==== The Second Congo War ====
The [[Second Congo War|Second Congo war]] was a major African continental war that began in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]] in 1998, and involved nine different African countries.<ref>Bowers, Chris (24 July 2006). "World War Three". My Direct Democracy. Archived from the original on 20 November 2018.</ref> Zambia was not a belligerent in this military engagement, but sought to facilitate peace and an end to the fighting. Representatives from various international organizations such as the United Nations, met on 21–27 June 1999 in Lusaka in  order to draft a resolution to the conflict.<ref>"DR Congo: Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 20 November 2018.</ref> The ceasefire agreement set to end the fighting, deploy peacekeeping forces and release prisoners of war on both sides of the fighting. Heads of state from [[Angola]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] convened in Lusaka, Zambia on 10 July 1999 to sign the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement.<ref>Ngolet F. (2011) The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. In: Crisis in the Congo. Palgrave Macmillan, New York</ref> Ultimately hostilities continued despite the passage of the Peace Agreement, and the official fighting did not resolve itself until 2003.<ref>Soderlund, Walter C.; DonaldBriggs, E.; PierreNajem, Tom; Roberts, Blake C. (1 January 2013). ''Africa's Deadliest Conflict: Media Coverage of the Humanitarian Disaster in the Congo and the United Nations Response, 1997–2008''. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. {{ISBN|9781554588787}}.</ref>

===African cooperation===

[[Zambia]] is a member of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), now known as the [[African Union]], and was its chairman until July 2002. Zambia also takes part in the unions economical cooperation, the [[African Economic Community]] (AEC). Among the AEC's different pillars, Zambia takes part in two; [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) and the [[preferential trade area]] [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA).  The country is also a member of the [[Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa]] (PMAESA).

SADC was founded in Zambia's capital [[Lusaka]] on 1 April 1980, and COMESA has its headquarters there as well.