Editing Fluorescence (section)

=== Quantum yield ===
The fluorescence [[quantum yield]] gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed.<ref name=Lakowicz-1999/>{{rp|style=ama|p= 10}}<ref name="Berberan-Santos, Mario-2012">
{{cite book
 |author1=Valeur, Bernard
 |author2=Berberan-Santos, Mario
 |year=2012
 |title=Molecular Fluorescence: Principles and applications
 |publisher=Wiley-VCH
 |isbn=978-3-527-32837-6
 |page=64
}}
</ref>
: <math> \Phi = \frac {\text{Number of photons emitted}} {\text{Number of photons absorbed}} </math>

The maximum possible fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0 (100%); each [[photon]] absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent. Another way to define the quantum yield of fluorescence is by the rate of excited state decay:
: <math> \Phi = \frac{ { k}_{ f} }{ \sum_{i}{ k}_{i } } </math>
where <math>{ k}_{ f}</math> is the rate constant of [[spontaneous emission]] of radiation and
: <math> \sum_{i}{ k}_{i } </math>
is the sum of all rates of excited state decay. Other rates of excited state decay are caused by mechanisms other than photon emission and are, therefore, often called "non-radiative rates", which can include:
* dynamic collisional quenching
* near-field dipole–dipole interaction (or [[resonance energy transfer]])
* internal conversion
* [[intersystem crossing]]

Thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected.

Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Levitus |first=Marcia |date=2020-04-22 |title=Tutorial: measurement of fluorescence spectra and determination of relative fluorescence quantum yields of transparent samples |url=https://doi.org/10.1088/2050-6120/ab7e10|journal=Methods and Applications in Fluorescence |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=033001 |doi=10.1088/2050-6120/ab7e10 |pmid=32150732 |bibcode=2020MApFl...8c3001L |s2cid=212653274 |issn=2050-6120 |access-date=9 June 2021 |archive-date=4 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504144923/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2050-6120/ab7e10 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[quinine]] salt ''quinine sulfate'' in a [[sulfuric acid]] solution was regarded as the most common fluorescence standard,<ref>
{{cite journal
 |last=Brouwer |first=Albert M.
 |date=2011-08-31
 |title=Standards for photoluminescence quantum yield measurements in solution
 |series=IUPAC Technical Report
 |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry
 |volume=83 |issue=12 |pages=2213–2228
 |doi=10.1351/PAC-REP-10-09-31
 |s2cid=98138291 |issn=1365-3075
 |doi-access=free
}}
</ref>
however, a recent study revealed that the fluorescence quantum yield of this solution is strongly affected by the temperature, and should no longer be used as the standard solution. The quinine in 0.1&nbsp;[[mole (unit)|M]] perchloric acid ({{nowrap|1=Φ = 0.60}}) shows no temperature dependence up to 45&nbsp;°C, therefore it can be considered as a reliable standard solution.<ref>
{{cite journal
 |last1=Nawara |first1=Krzysztof
 |last2=Waluk  |first2=Jacek
 |date=2019-04-16
 |title=Goodbye to quinine in sulfuric acid solutions as a fluorescence quantum yield standard
 |journal=Analytical Chemistry |language=en
 |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=5389–5394
 |doi=10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00583
 |pmid=30907575 |s2cid=85501014 |issn=0003-2700
 |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00583
 |url-status=live
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207194942/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00583
 |archive-date=7 February 2021
}}
</ref>