Editing Ethnocentrism (section)

==Causes==
Ethnocentrism is believed to be a [[Behavior|learned behavior]] embedded into a variety of beliefs and values of an individual or group.<ref name=":2"/>

Due to [[enculturation]], individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of loyalty and are more likely to follow the norms and develop relationships with associated members.<ref name=":0" /> Within relation to enculturation, ethnocentrism is said to be a transgenerational problem since stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> Although loyalty can increase better in-grouper approval, limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater ethnocentrism.<ref name=":0" />

The [[social identity approach]] suggests that ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture. It is theorized by [[Henri Tajfel]] and [[John C. Turner]] that to maintain that positive view, people make [[Social comparison theory|social comparisons]] that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.<ref>Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. (2001). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191126151828/http://ark143.org/wordpress2/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Tajfel-Turner-1979-An-Integrative-Theory-of-Intergroup-Conflict.pdf An integrative theory of intergroup conflict]. In M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams (Eds.), Key readings in social psychology. Intergroup relations: Essential readings (pp. 94–109). New York, NY, US: Psychology Press.</ref>

Alternative or opposite perspectives could cause individuals to develop [[naïve realism]] and be subject to limitations in understandings.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Sammut|first1=Gordon|last2=Bezzina|first2=Frank|last3=Sartawi|first3=Mohammad|date=2015|title=The spiral of conflict: Naïve realism and the black sheep effect in attributions of knowledge and ignorance|journal=Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology|volume=21|issue=2|pages=289–294|doi=10.1037/pac0000098}}</ref> These characteristics can also lead to individuals to become subject to ethnocentrism, when referencing out-groups, and [[black sheep effect]], where personal perspectives contradict those from fellow in-groupers.<ref name=":5" />

[[Realistic conflict theory]] assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict" between groups. This also happens when a dominant group may perceive the new members as a threat.<ref name="Hooghe Ethnocentrism"/> Scholars have recently demonstrated that individuals are more likely to develop in-group identification and out-group negatively in response to intergroup competition, conflict, or threat.<ref name=":0" />

Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of context and reason, the effects of ethnocentrism has had both negative and positive effects throughout history. The most detrimental effects of ethnocentrism resulting into [[genocide]], [[apartheid]], [[slavery]], and many violent conflicts. Historical examples of these negative effects of ethnocentrism are [[The Holocaust]], the [[Crusades]], the [[Trail of Tears]], and the [[internment of Japanese Americans]]. These events were a result of cultural differences reinforced inhumanely by a majority group who thought of themselves as superior. In his 1976 book on evolution, ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', evolutionary biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] writes that "blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretative in terms of [[W. D. Hamilton|Hamilton's]] genetic theory."<ref name="Dawkins200622">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=go0e5sBRznYC&pg=PA99|title=The selfish gene|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-929115-1|page=99}}</ref> Simulation-based experiments in [[evolutionary game theory]] have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hammond|first1=R. A.|last2=Axelrod|first2=R.|s2cid=9613947|year=2006|title=The Evolution of Ethnocentrism|journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution|volume=50|issue=6|pages=926–936|doi=10.1177/0022002706293470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.18564/jasss.2176 |title = The Evolutionary Dominance of Ethnocentric Cooperation|journal = Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation|volume = 16|issue = 3|year = 2013|last1 = Hartshorn|first1 = Max|last2 = Kaznatcheev|first2 = Artem|last3 = Shultz|first3 = Thomas|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The positive examples of ethnocentrism throughout history have aimed to prohibit the callousness of ethnocentrism and reverse the perspectives of living in a single culture. These organizations can include the formation of the United Nations; aimed to maintain international relations, and the [[Olympic Games]]; a celebration of sports and friendly competition between cultures.<ref name=":2" />