Editing Erwin Rommel (section)

== World War II ==
{{overly detailed|section|nospin=1|details=for each battle or siege with its own article, try and reduce to one or two paragraphs, plus details specific to Rommel|date=May 2021}}

=== Poland 1939 ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-013-0064-35, Polen, Bormann, Hitler, Rommel, v. Reichenau.jpg|thumb|Hitler in Poland (September 1939). Rommel is on his left and [[Martin Bormann]] on his right.]]

Rommel was promoted to ''[[Generalmajor]]'' on 23 August 1939 and assigned as commander of the ''[[Führerbegleitbrigade|Führerbegleitbatallion]]'', tasked with guarding Hitler and his field headquarters during the [[invasion of Poland]], which began on 1 September.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=144}} According to Remy, Rommel's private letters at this time show that he did not understand Hitler's true nature and intentions, as he quickly went from predicting a swift peaceful settlement of tensions to approving Hitler's reaction ("bombs will be retaliated with bombs") to the [[Gleiwitz incident]] (a false flag operation staged by Hitler and used as a pretext for the invasion).{{sfn|Remy|2002|pp=42–44}} Hitler took a personal interest in the campaign, often moving close to the front in the ''[[Führersonderzug]]'' (headquarters train).{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=146}} Rommel attended Hitler's daily war briefings and accompanied him everywhere, making use of the opportunity to observe first-hand the use of tanks and other motorised units.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=141}} On 26 September Rommel returned to Berlin to set up a new headquarters for his unit in the [[Reich Chancellery]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=146, 149}} Rommel briefly returned to occupied Warsaw on 5 October in order to prepare for the German victory parade.{{sfn|Messenger|2009|p=34}} In a letter to his wife he claimed that the occupation by Nazi Germany was "probably welcomed with relief" by the inhabitants of the ruined city and that they were "rescued".{{sfn|Searle|2014|p=24}}{{sfn|Maier|2013|p=49}}

=== France 1940 ===
==== Promotion to armoured division commander ====
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-124-0242-24, Mosel, Julius v. Bernuth, Erwin Rommel.jpg|thumb|upright|General Erwin Rommel and his staff observe troops of the 7th Panzer Division practising a river crossing at the Moselle River in France in 1940.]]

Following the invasion of Poland, Rommel began lobbying for command of one of Germany's [[panzer division]]s, of which there were then only ten.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=151}} Rommel's successes in World War I were based on surprise and manoeuvre, two elements for which the new panzer units were ideally suited.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=114}} Rommel received a promotion to a general's rank from Hitler ahead of more senior officers. Rommel obtained the command he aspired to, despite having been earlier turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division instead.{{sfn|Watson|1999|p=158}} According to [[Peter Caddick-Adams]], he was backed by Hitler, the influential [[14th Army (Wehrmacht)|Fourteenth Army]] commander [[Wilhelm List]] (a fellow Württemberger middle-class "military outsider") and likely [[Heinz Guderian]], the commander of [[XIX Army Corps]], as well.{{sfn|Caddick-Adams|2012|pp=125, 141}}

Going against military protocol, this promotion added to Rommel's growing reputation as one of Hitler's favoured commanders,{{sfn|Zabecki|2016}} although his later outstanding leadership in France quelled complaints about his self-promotion and political scheming.{{sfn|Zaloga|2013a|p=64}} The [[7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|7th Panzer Division]] had recently been converted to an armoured division consisting of 218 tanks in three battalions (thus, one tank regiment, instead of the two assigned to a standard panzer division),{{sfn|Pimlott|1994|p=49}} with two rifle regiments, a motorcycle battalion, an engineer battalion, and an anti-tank battalion.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=156–157}} Upon taking command on 10 February 1940, Rommel quickly set his unit to practising the manoeuvres they would need in the upcoming campaign.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=151, 161}}

==== Invasion of the Netherlands, Belgium and France ====
{{main|German invasion of the Netherlands|German invasion of Belgium (1940)|Battle of France}}
The invasion began on 10 May 1940. By the third day Rommel and the advance elements of his division, together with a detachment of the [[5th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|5th Panzer Division]], had reached the [[Meuse]], where they found the bridges had already been destroyed (Guderian and [[Georg-Hans Reinhardt]] reached the river on the same day).{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=154–155}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alexander |first1=Bevin |title=Inside the Nazi War Machine: How Three Generals Unleashed Hitler's Blitzkrieg Upon the World |date=2008|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-101-46091-7|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsN2SVvNZZYC&pg=PT104}}</ref> Rommel was active in the forward areas, directing the efforts to make a crossing, which were initially unsuccessful because of suppressive fire by the French on the other side of the river. Rommel brought up tanks and [[flak]] units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen. He sent infantry across in rubber boats, appropriated the bridging tackle of the 5th Panzer Division, personally grabbed a light machine gun to fight off a French counterattack supported by tanks, and went into the water himself, encouraging the sappers and helping lash together the pontoons.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=14}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2009|p=71}} By 16 May Rommel reached [[Avesnes]], and contravening orders, he pressed on to Cateau.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=160–161}} That night, the French II Army Corps was shattered and on 17 May, Rommel's forces took 10,000 prisoners, losing 36 men in the process. He was surprised to find out only his vanguard had followed his tempestuous surge. The High Command and Hitler had been extremely nervous about his disappearance, although they awarded him the Knight's Cross. Rommel's (and Guderian's) successes and the new possibilities offered by the new tank arm were welcomed by a small number of generals, but worried and paralysed the rest.{{sfn|Krause|Phillips|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1DLRMQfzyVwC&pg=PA176 176]}}

On 20 May, Rommel reached [[Arras]].{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=164}} General [[Hermann Hoth]] received orders that the town should be bypassed and its British garrison thus isolated. He ordered the 5th Panzer Division to move to the west and the 7th Panzer Division to the east, flanked by the [[SS Division Totenkopf]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=183}} The following day, the British launched a counterattack in the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]]. It failed and the British withdrew.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=165–166}}

On 24 May, ''[[Generaloberst]]'' (Colonel General) [[Gerd von Rundstedt]] and ''Generaloberst'' [[Günther von Kluge]] issued a halt order, which Hitler approved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/dunkirk-75th-anniversary-real-reason-hitler-let-british-troops-go-1503201|title=Dunkirk anniversary: The real reason Hitler let the British troops go|first=Michael|last=Epkenhans|date=27 May 2015|access-date=3 February 2017|archive-date=3 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211203183410/https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/dunkirk-75th-anniversary-real-reason-hitler-let-british-troops-go-1503201|url-status=live}}</ref> The reason for this decision is still a matter of debate.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=166}}{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=24}}{{sfn|Krause|Phillips|2007|p=179}} The halt order was lifted on 26 May.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=24}} 7th Panzer continued its advance, reaching [[Lille]] on 27 May.{{sfn|Messenger|2009|p=51}} The [[Siege of Lille (1940)|Siege of Lille]] continued until 31 May, when the French garrison of 40,000 men surrendered. Rommel was summoned to Berlin to meet with Hitler. He was the only divisional commander present at the planning session for ''[[Fall Rot]]'' (Case Red), the second phase of the invasion of France. By this time the [[Dunkirk evacuation]] was complete; over 338,000 Allied troops had been evacuated across the Channel, though they had to leave behind all their heavy equipment and vehicles.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=169–171}}

==== Drive for the Channel ====
{{main|Fall Rot}}
Rommel, resuming his advance on 5 June, drove for the [[River Seine]] to secure the bridges near [[Rouen]]. Advancing {{convert|100|km|mi|-1}} in two days, the division reached Rouen to find it defended by three French tanks which managed to destroy a number of German tanks before being taken out. The German force, enraged by this resistance, forbade fire brigades access to the burning district of the old Norman capital, and as a result, most of the historic quarter was reduced to ashes.<ref>"Three German Invasions of France: The Summers Campaigns of 1830, 1914, 1940" Douglas Fermer p. 210, ''Pen & Sword'' 2013</ref> According to [[David Fraser (British Army officer)|David Fraser]], Rommel instructed the German artillery to bombard the city as a "fire demonstration".<ref>''Knight's Cross: A Life of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel'' by David Fraser, 1993, p. 198, David Fraser. "Rommel planned to send a force to a crossroads a few miles east of Rouen from which a powerful fire demonstration could be opened towards Rouen itself".{{ISBN?}}</ref> According to one witness report, the smoke from burning Rouen was intense enough that it reached Paris.<ref>''Half Past when: An American with the Fighting French'', Hassoldt Davis, p. 40, J. B. Lippincott Company, 1944 "On the tenth and eleventh of June the docks of Rouen were burned and an enormous cloud of black smoke settled over Paris. Rumour had it that the smoke was to hide the movements of the evacuees and to blind the German advance, but in our hearts we knew the truth, simply and terribly that Rouen was burning."{{ISBN?}}</ref> Daniel Allen Butler states that the bridges to the city were already destroyed. After the fall of the city, both black civilians and colonial troops were summarily executed on 9 June by unknown German units.<ref>Les Tirailleurs sénégalais; Les soldats noirs entre légendes et réalités 1939–1945 by Julien Fargetta, Tallandier 2012 ''Lyon ne constitue pas un cas unique puisque, à l'issue de la chute de Rouen, le 9 juin 1940, des exécutions de civils de couleur sont mentionnées'', "Lyon is not a unique case since, after the fall of Rouen, on June 9, 1940, executions of colored civilians are mentioned".</ref><ref>Rouen sous l'occupation: 1940–1944, Patrick Coiffier, p. 6, Bertout, 2004 ''Tous les hommes de couleur sont regroupés [...] Ils seront tous conduits sur les hauteurs, dans une propriété située au n° 11 rue de Bihorel où ils seront massacrés à la mitrailleuse.'' "All the men of color are grouped together [...] They will all be taken to the heights, to a property located at 11 rue de Bihorel where they will be massacred with a machine gun."</ref><ref>Paroles de résistance – p. 75, Jean Pierre Brulé, ditions de la Veytizou, 2003 ''A Rouen, dès le 9 juin 1940, les premiers détachements Allemands entrés dans la ville s'emparèrent de civils d'origine africaine et, dans le parc d'une propriété où ils avaient installé un PC, 11 rue de Bihorel, ils les abattirent à la...'' "In Rouen, from June 9, 1940, the first German detachments to enter the city seized civilians of African origin and, in the park of a property [...], 11 rue de Bihorel, they shot them down".</ref> The number of black civilians and prisoners killed is estimated at 100.<ref>Histoire de la Normandie et questions diverses, Volume 2 Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques 1984, p. 373 ''Les exécutions de prisonniers, comme celle d'une centaine de nord – africains, rue Bihorel à Rouen, et'' "The executions of prisoners, like that of a hundred North Africans, rue Bihorel in Rouen"</ref> According to Butler and Showalter, Rouen fell to the 5th Panzer Division, while Rommel advanced from the Seine towards the Channel.{{sfn|Showalter|2006|p=182}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=174}} On 10 June, Rommel reached the coast near [[Dieppe]], sending Hoth the message "''Bin an der Küste''" ("Am on the coast").{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=172, 174}} On 17 June, 7th Panzer was ordered to advance on [[Cherbourg-en-Cotentin|Cherbourg]], where additional British evacuations were under way. The division advanced {{convert|240|km|mi|abbr=on}} in 24 hours, and after two days of shelling, the French garrison surrendered on 19 June.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=204–206}} The speed and surprise that it was consistently able to achieve, to the point at which both the enemy and the ''[[Oberkommando des Heeres]]'' (OKH; German "High Command of the Army") at times lost track of its whereabouts, earned the 7th Panzers the nickname ''Gespensterdivision'' ("ghost division").{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=191–192}}

After the armistice with the French was signed on 22 June, the division was placed in reserve, being sent first to the Somme and then to Bordeaux to re-equip and prepare for ''Unternehmen Seelöwe'' ([[Operation Sea Lion]]), the planned invasion of Britain.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=177}} This invasion was later cancelled, as Germany was not able to acquire the air superiority needed for a successful outcome, while the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' was massively outnumbered by the Royal Navy.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=26}}

=== North Africa 1941–1943 ===
{{Further information|North African Campaign}}
[[File:WesternDesertBattle Area1941 en.svg|thumb|upright=2|Western Desert battle area]]

On 6 February 1941, Rommel was appointed commander of the new [[Afrika Korps]] (''Deutsches Afrika Korps''; DAK), consisting of the 5th Light Division (later renamed [[21st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|21st Panzer Division]]) and of the [[15th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|15th Panzer Division]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=223}} He was promoted to ''[[Generalleutnant]]'' three days later and flew to [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] on 12 February.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=217}} The DAK had been sent to [[Libya]] in [[Operation Sonnenblume]] to support [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] troops who had been roundly defeated by British Commonwealth forces in [[Operation Compass]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=217}}{{refn|group=N|The Italian army had been pushed back out of Cyrenaica and nearly 140,000 troops captured}} His efforts in the [[Western Desert Campaign]] earned Rommel the nickname the "Desert Fox" from journalists on both sides of the war.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=17}}{{refn|group=N|It is not known exactly who coined the name first, as ''Desert Fox'' (in Britain) and ''Wüstenfuchs'' (in Germany) seemingly came into use at the same time.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=17}}}} Allied troops in Africa were commanded by General [[Archibald Wavell]], Commander-in-Chief, [[Middle East Command]].{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=182}}

==== First Axis offensive ====
Rommel and his troops were technically subordinate to Italian commander-in-chief General [[Italo Gariboldi]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=223}} Disagreeing with the orders of the ''[[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]]'' (OKW, German armed forces high command) to assume a defensive posture along the front line at [[Sirte]], Rommel resorted to subterfuge and insubordination to take the war to the British.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=187–190}} According to Remy, the General Staff tried to slow him down but Hitler encouraged him to advance—an expression of the conflict that had existed between Hitler and the army leadership since the invasion of Poland.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=56}} He decided to launch a limited offensive on 24 March with the 5th Light Division, supported by two Italian divisions.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=193}} This thrust was not anticipated by the British, who had [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]] intelligence showing that Rommel had orders to remain on the defensive until at least May when the 15th Panzer Division were due to arrive.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=199}}

The British [[Western Desert Force]] had meanwhile been weakened by the transfer in mid-February of three divisions for the [[Battle of Greece]].{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=198}} They fell back to [[Mersa El Brega]] and started constructing defensive works.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=33}} After a day of fierce fighting on 31 March, the Germans captured Mersa El Brega.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=229}} Splitting his force into three groups, Rommel resumed the advance on 3 April. [[Benghazi]] fell that night as the British pulled out of the city.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=231}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=204–205}} Gariboldi, who had ordered Rommel to stay in Mersa El Brega, was furious. Rommel was equally forceful in his response, telling Gariboldi, "One cannot permit unique opportunities to slip by for the sake of trifles."{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=36}} A signal arrived from General [[Franz Halder]] reminding Rommel that he was to halt in Mersa El Brega. Knowing Gariboldi could not speak German, Rommel told him the message gave him complete freedom of action. Gariboldi backed down.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=205}} Throughout the campaign, fuel supply was problematic, as no petrol was available locally; it had to be brought from Europe by tanker and then carried by road to where it was needed.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=35}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=205–206}} Food and fresh water were also in short supply, and it was difficult to move tanks and other equipment off-road through the sand.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=207, 214}} Cyrenaica was captured by 8 April, except for the port city of [[Tobruk]], which was besieged on 11 April.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=236}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=220}}

==== Siege of Tobruk ====
{{Main|Siege of Tobruk}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-783-0150-28, Nordafrika, Panzer III.jpg|thumb|Afrika Korps [[Panzer III]] drives past a vehicle burning in the desert, April 1941]]

The [[siege of Tobruk]] was not technically a siege, as the defenders were still able to move supplies and reinforcements into the city via the port.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=221}} Rommel knew that by capturing the port he could greatly reduce the length of his supply lines and increase his overall port capacity, which was insufficient even for day-to-day operations and only half that needed for offensive operations.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=258}} The city, which had been heavily fortified by the Italians during their 30-year occupation, was garrisoned by 36,000 Commonwealth troops,{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=221, 224}} commanded by Australian [[Lieutenant General]] [[Leslie Morshead]].{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=35}} Hoping to catch the defenders off-guard, Rommel launched a failed attack on 14 April.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=242}}

[[File:BattleaxeContestedArea.svg|thumb|Map of [[Halfaya Pass]] and surrounding area]]

Rommel requested reinforcements, but the OKW, then completing preparations for [[Operation Barbarossa]], refused.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=39}} General [[Friedrich Paulus]], head of the Operations Branch of the OKH, arrived on 25 April to review the situation.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=240–241}} He was present for a second failed attack on the city on 30 April. On 4 May, Paulus ordered that no further attempts should be made to take Tobruk via a direct assault.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=244}} Following a failed counter-attack in [[Operation Brevity]] in May,{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=250}} Wavell launched [[Operation Battleaxe]] on 15 June; this attack was also defeated.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=271}} The defeat resulted in Churchill replacing Wavell with General [[Claude Auchinleck]] as theatre commander.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=48}}

In August, Rommel was appointed commander of the newly created [[Panzer Army Africa]], with [[Fritz Bayerlein]] as his chief of staff.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=53}} The Afrika Korps, comprising the 15th Panzer Division and the 5th Light Division, now reinforced and redesignated 21st Panzer Division, was put under command of Generalleutnant [[Ludwig Crüwell]]. In addition to the Afrika Korps, Rommel's Panzer Group had the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|90th Light Division]] and four Italian divisions, three infantry divisions investing Tobruk, and one holding Bardia. The two Italian armoured divisions, formed into the [[Italian XX Motorized Corps]] under the command of General [[Gastone Gambara]], were under Italian control.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=54}} Two months later Hitler decided he must have German officers in better control of the Mediterranean theatre, and appointed Field Marshal [[Albert Kesselring]] as Commander in Chief, South. Kesselring was ordered to get control of the air and sea between Africa and Italy.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=54}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-443-1599-20, Nordafrika, bei Bir Hacheim, feuernde Flak.2.jpg|thumb|Near Bir Hachiem [[8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41|8.8cm Flak 18 guns]] firing. Rommel's vehicle in the background]]

{{anchor|Operation Crusader}}Following his success in Battleaxe, Rommel returned his attention to the capture of Tobruk. He made preparations for a new offensive, to be launched between 15 and 20 November.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=57}} Meanwhile, Auchinleck reorganised Allied forces and strengthened them to two corps, [[XXX Corps (United Kingdom)|XXX]] and [[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII]], which formed the [[British Eighth Army]]. It was placed under the command of [[Alan Cunningham]].{{Sfn|Butler|2015|pp=292–293}} Auchinleck launched [[Operation Crusader]], a major offensive to relieve Tobruk, on 18 November 1941.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=294}} Rommel reluctantly decided on 20 November to call off his planned attack on Tobruk.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=295}}

<!--[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-1982-0927-503, Bei El Agheila, Rommel bei italienischer Division.jpg|thumb|Rommel conversing with his staff near [[El Agheila]], 12 January 1942]]--->
In four days of heavy fighting, the Eighth Army lost 530 tanks and Rommel only 100.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=298}} Wanting to exploit the British halt and their apparent disorganisation, on 24 November Rommel counterattacked near the Egyptian border in an operation that became known as the "dash to the wire". Cunningham asked Auchinleck for permission to withdraw into Egypt, but Auchinleck refused and soon replaced Cunningham as commander of the Eighth Army with Major General [[Neil Ritchie]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=287–289}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=300–301}} The German counterattack stalled as it outran its supplies and met stiffening resistance, and was criticised by the German High Command and some of Rommel's staff officers.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=288}}

While Rommel drove into Egypt, the remaining Commonwealth forces east of Tobruk threatened the weak Axis lines there. Unable to reach Rommel for several days, Rommel's Chief of Staff, [[Siegfried Westphal]], ordered the 21st Panzer Division to withdraw to support the siege of Tobruk. On 27 November, the British attack on Tobruk linked up with the defenders, and Rommel, having suffered losses that could not easily be replaced, had to concentrate on regrouping the divisions that had attacked into Egypt. By 7 December, Rommel fell back to a defensive line at Gazala, just west of Tobruk, all the while under heavy attack from the [[Desert Air Force]].{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=291–293}} The Allies kept up the pressure, and Rommel was forced to retreat all the way back to the starting positions he had held in March, reaching [[El Agheila]] in December 1941.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=304}} The British had retaken almost all of Cyrenaica, but Rommel's retreat dramatically shortened his supply lines.{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|p=131}}

==== Battle of Gazala and capture of Tobruk ====
{{Main|Battle of Gazala|Axis capture of Tobruk}}
On 5 January 1942, the Afrika Korps received 55 tanks and new supplies and Rommel started planning a counterattack, which he launched on 21 January.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|pp=99–101|loc=Quote from Rommel: I had maintained secrecy over the Panzer Group's forthcoming attack eastwards from Mersa el Brega and informed neither the Italian nor the German High Command. We knew from experience that Italian Headquarters cannot keep things to themselves and that everything they wireless to Rome gets round to British ears. However, I had arranged with the Quartermaster for the Panzer Group's order to be posted in every ''Cantoniera'' in Tripolitinia on 21 January&nbsp;...}}{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=308, 311}} Caught by surprise, the Allies lost over 110 tanks and other heavy equipment. The Axis forces retook Benghazi on 29 January and [[Timimi]] on 3 February, with the Allies pulling back to a defensive line just before the Tobruk area south of the coastal town of Gazala.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=106}} Between December 1941 and June 1942, Rommel had excellent information about the disposition and intentions of the Commonwealth forces. [[Bonner Fellers]], US military attaché in Egypt, was sending detailed reports to the [[US State Department]] using a compromised code.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=309–310}}

Following Kesselring's successes in creating local air superiority around the British naval and air bases at [[Malta]] in April 1942, an increased flow of supplies reached the Axis forces in Africa.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=321}} With his forces strengthened, Rommel contemplated a major offensive operation for the end of May. He knew the British were planning offensive operations as well, and he hoped to pre-empt them.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=319}} Early in the afternoon of 26 May 1942, Rommel attacked first and the [[Battle of Gazala]] commenced.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=323–324}} Under the cover of darkness, the bulk of Rommel's motorised and armoured forces drove south to skirt the left flank of the British, coming up behind them and attacking to the north the following morning.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=45}}

On 30 May, Rommel resumed the offensive,{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=325–327}} and on 1 June, Rommel accepted the surrender of some 3,000 Commonwealth soldiers.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=330}} On 6 June, Rommel's forces assaulted the Free French strongpoint in the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]], but the defenders continued to thwart the attack until finally evacuating on 10 June.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=331}} Rommel then shifted his attack north; threatened with being completely cut off, the British began a retreat eastward toward Egypt on 14 June, the so-called "Gazala Gallop".{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=334}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-785-0293-11, Tobruk, Schützenpanzer, Panzer.jpg|thumb|left|Rommel in his command vehicle follows a Panzer in Tobruk.]]

The assault on Tobruk proper began at dawn on 20 June, and the British surrendered at dawn the following day.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=334–335}} Rommel's forces captured 32,000 Commonwealth troops, the port, and huge quantities of supplies.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=337}} Only at the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]], earlier that year, had more [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] troops been captured at one time. On 22 June, Hitler promoted Rommel to Generalfeldmarschall for this victory.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=337}} Following his success at Gazala and Tobruk, Rommel wanted to seize the moment and not allow the 8th Army a chance to regroup.{{sfn|Playfair|1960|p=296}} He strongly argued that the Panzerarmee should advance into Egypt and drive on to Alexandria and the [[Suez Canal]], as this would place almost all the Mediterranean coastline in Axis hands and, according to Rommel, potentially lead to the capture from the south of the oil fields in the [[Caucasus]] and [[Middle East]].{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=285–286, 345–347}}

Rommel's success at Tobruk worked against him, as Hitler no longer felt it was necessary to proceed with [[Operation Herkules]], the proposed attack on Malta.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=342}} Auchinleck relieved Ritchie of command of the Eighth Army on 25 June, and temporarily took command himself.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=339, 343}} Rommel knew that delay would only benefit the British, who continued to receive supplies at a faster rate than Rommel could hope to achieve. He pressed an attack on the heavily fortified town of [[Mersa Matruh]], which Auchinleck had designated as the fall-back position, surrounding it on 28 June.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=343–344}} The fortress fell to the Germans on 29 June. In addition to stockpiles of fuel and other supplies, the British abandoned hundreds of tanks and trucks. Those that were functional were put into service by the [[Panzerarmee]] which by now relied on British trucks for half its transport.{{Sfn|Butler|2015|pp=338–339}}

==== El Alamein ====
===== First Battle of El Alamein =====
{{Main|First Battle of El Alamein}}
[[File:Alamein1st1942 07.svg|thumb|El Alamein and surrounding area]]

Rommel continued his pursuit of the Eighth Army, which had fallen back to heavily prepared defensive positions at [[El Alamein]]. This region is a natural choke point, where the [[Qattara Depression]] creates a relatively short line to defend that could not be outflanked to the south because of the steep escarpment. During this time Germans prepared numerous propaganda postcards and leaflets for the Egyptian and Syrian populations urging them to "chase English out of the cities", warning them about "Jewish peril" and with one leaflet printed in 296,000 copies and aimed at Syria stating among others

{{Blockquote|''Because Marshal Rommel, at the head of the brave Axis troops, is already rattling the last gates of England's power! Arabs! Help your friends achieve their goal: abolishing the English-Jewish-American tyranny!''<ref>{{cite book |title=Nazi Palestine: The Plans for the Extermination of the Jews in Palestine |first1=Klaus-Michael |last1=Mallmann |first2=Martin |last2=Cüppers |pages=110–111 |publisher=Enigma Books |date=2010}}</ref>}}

On 1 July, the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] began. Rommel had around 100 available tanks. The Allies were able to achieve local air superiority, with heavy bombers attacking the 15th and 21st Panzers, who had also been delayed by a sandstorm. The 90th Light Division veered off course and were pinned down by South African artillery fire. Rommel continued to attempt to advance for two more days, but repeated sorties by the Desert Air Force meant he could make no progress.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=347–350}} On 3 July, he wrote in his diary that his strength had "faded away".{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=913}} Attacks by 21st Panzer on 13 and 14 July were repulsed, and an Australian attack on 16–17 July was held off with difficulty.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=345}} Throughout the first half of July, Auchinleck concentrated attacks on the Italian [[60th Infantry Division Sabratha]] at Tel el Eisa. The ridge was captured by the [[26th Brigade (Australia)|26th Australian Brigade]] on 16 July.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=351}} Both sides suffered similar losses throughout the month, but the Axis supply situation remained less favourable. Rommel realised that the tide was turning.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=346}} A break in the action took place at the end of July as both sides rested and regrouped.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=354}}

Preparing for a renewed drive, the British replaced Auchinleck with General [[Harold Alexander]] on 8 August. [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]] was made the new commander of the Eighth Army that same day. The Eighth Army had initially been assigned to General [[William Gott]], but he was killed when his plane was shot down on 7 August.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=355, 370}} Rommel knew that a British convoy carrying over 100,000 tons of supplies was due to arrive in September.{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|p=171}} He decided to launch an attack at the end of August with the 15th and 21st Panzer Division, 90th Light Division, and the Italian XX Motorized Corps in a drive through the southern flank of the El Alamein lines.{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|loc=map|p=163}} Expecting an attack sooner rather than later, Montgomery fortified the Alam el Halfa ridge with the 44th Division, and positioned the 7th Armoured Division about {{convert|15|mi|km|round=5|order=flip}} to the south.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|pp=47–48}}

===== Battle of Alam El Halfa =====
{{Main|Battle of Alam el Halfa}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-784-0249-04A, Nordafrika, Rommel im Befehlsfahrzeug "Greif".2.jpg|thumb|left|Rommel in a [[Sd.Kfz. 250]]/3]]

The [[Battle of Alam el Halfa]] was launched on 30 August. The terrain left Rommel with no choice but to follow a similar tactic as he had at previous battles: the bulk of the forces attempted to sweep around from the south while secondary attacks were launched on the remainder of the front. It took much longer than anticipated to get through the minefields in the southern sector, and the tanks got bogged down in unexpected patches of quicksand (Montgomery had arranged for Rommel to acquire a falsified map of the terrain).{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=48}}{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|p=165}} Under heavy fire from British artillery and aircraft, and in the face of well-prepared positions that Rommel could not hope to outflank for lack of fuel, the attack stalled. By 2 September, Rommel realised the battle was unwinnable, and decided to withdraw.{{sfn|Carver|1962|p=67}}

On the night of 3 September, the 2nd New Zealand Division and 7th Armoured Division positioned to the north engaged in an assault, but they were repelled in a fierce rearguard action by the 90th Light Division. Montgomery called off further action to preserve his strength and allow for further desert training for his forces.{{sfn|Carver|1962|p=70}} In the attack, Rommel had suffered 2,940 casualties and lost 50 tanks, a similar number of guns, and 400 lorries, vital for supplies and movement. The British losses, except tank losses of 68, were much less, further adding to the numerical inferiority of [[Panzer Army Africa]]. The Desert Air Force inflicted the highest proportions of damage on Rommel's forces. He now realised the war in Africa could not be won.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|p=286}} Physically exhausted and suffering from a liver infection and low blood pressure, Rommel flew home to Germany to recover his health.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=372}}{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=50}} General [[Georg Stumme]] was left in command in Rommel's absence.{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|p=171}}

===== Second Battle of El Alamein =====
{{Main|Second Battle of El Alamein}}
[[File:Destroyed Panzer IIIs near Tel el Eisa 1942.jpg|thumb|Destroyed [[Panzer III]]s at Tel el Eisa, near El Alamein (1942)]]
[[File:2 Battle of El Alamein 010.png|thumb|[[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. Situation on 28 October 1942]]

Improved decoding by British intelligence (see [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]]) meant that the Allies had advance knowledge of virtually every Mediterranean convoy, and only 30 per cent of shipments were getting through.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=52}} In addition, Mussolini diverted supplies intended for the front to his garrison at Tripoli and refused to release any additional troops to Rommel.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=362}} The increasing Allied air superiority and lack of fuel meant Rommel was forced to take a more defensive posture than he would have liked for the [[second Battle of El Alamein]].{{sfn|Douglas-Home|1973|p=172}} The German defences to the west of the town included a minefield {{convert|5|mi|km|order=flip|spell=on|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} deep with the main defensive line—itself several thousand yards deep—to its west.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=370}} This, Rommel hoped, would allow his infantry to hold the line at any point until motorised and armoured units in reserve could move up and counterattack any Allied breaches.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|p=299}} The British offensive began on 23 October. Stumme, in command in Rommel's absence, died of an apparent heart attack while examining the front on 24 October, and Rommel was ordered to return from his medical leave, arriving on the 25th.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=375–377}} Montgomery's intention was to clear a narrow path through the minefield at the northern part of the defences, at the area called Kidney Ridge, with a feint to the south. By the end of 25 October, the 15th Panzer, the defenders in this sector, had only 31 serviceable tanks remaining of their initial force of 119.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=373}} Rommel brought the 21st Panzer and Ariete Divisions north on 26 October, to bolster the sector. On 28 October, Montgomery shifted his focus to the coast, ordering his 1st and 10th Armoured Divisions to attempt to swing around and cut off Rommel's line of retreat. Meanwhile, Rommel concentrated his attack on the Allied [[Salient (military)|salient]] at Kidney Ridge, inflicting heavy losses. However, Rommel had only 150 operational tanks remaining, and Montgomery had 800, many of them [[M4 Sherman|Shermans]].{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=378–380}}

Montgomery, seeing his armoured brigades losing tanks at an alarming rate, stopped major attacks until the early hours of 2 November, when he opened Operation Supercharge, with a massive artillery barrage.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=378}} Due to heavy losses in tanks, towards the end of the day, Rommel ordered his forces to disengage and begin to withdraw.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=379–380}} At midnight, he informed the OKW of his decision, and received a reply directly from Hitler the following afternoon: he ordered Rommel and his troops to hold their position to the last man. Rommel, who believed that the lives of his soldiers should never be squandered needlessly, was stunned.{{sfn|Butler|2015|pp=385–386}} Rommel initially complied with the order, but after discussions with Kesselring and others, he issued orders for a retreat on 4 November.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|pp=381–383}} The delay proved costly in terms of his ability to get his forces out of Egypt. He later said the decision to delay was what he most regretted from his time in Africa.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|p=327}} Meanwhile, the British 1st and 7th Armoured Division had broken through the German defences and were preparing to swing north and surround the Axis forces.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=389}} On the evening of the 4th, Rommel finally received word from Hitler authorising the withdrawal.{{sfn|Fraser|1993|p=383}}

==== End of Africa campaign ====
As Rommel attempted to withdraw his forces before the British could cut off his retreat, he fought a series of delaying actions. Heavy rains slowed movements and grounded the Desert Air Force, which aided the withdrawal, yet Rommel's troops were under pressure from the pursuing Eighth Army and had to abandon the trucks of the Italian forces, leaving them behind.{{sfn|Scianna|2018|p=135}} Rommel continued to retreat west,{{sfn|Coggins|1980|p=11}} aiming for 'Gabes gap' in Tunisia.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=192}} Kesselring strongly criticised Rommel's decision to retreat all the way to Tunisia, as each airfield the Germans abandoned extended the range of the Allied bombers and fighters. Rommel defended his decision, pointing out that if he tried to assume a defensive position the Allies would destroy his forces and take the airfields anyway; the retreat saved the lives of his remaining men and shortened his supply lines. By now, Rommel's remaining forces fought in reduced-strength combat groups, whereas the Allied forces had great numerical superiority and control of the air. On his arrival in [[Tunisia]], Rommel noted with some bitterness the reinforcements, including the 10th Panzer Division, arriving in Tunisia following the Allied invasion of Morocco.{{sfn|Rommel|1982|pp=342–357}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1990-071-31, Nordafrika, Rommel, Bayerlein.jpg|thumb|left|Rommel speaks with troops who are using a captured American M3 half-track, Tunisia.]]

Having reached Tunisia, Rommel launched an attack against the [[U.S. II Corps]] which was threatening to cut his lines of supply north to Tunis. Rommel inflicted a sharp defeat on the American forces at the [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass|Kasserine Pass]] in February, his last battlefield victory of the war, and his first engagement against the United States Army.{{sfn|Coggins|1980|p=129}}

Rommel immediately turned back against the British forces, occupying the [[Mareth Line]] (old French defences on the Libyan border). While Rommel was at Kasserine at the end of January 1943, the Italian General [[Giovanni Messe]] was appointed commander of Panzer Army Africa, renamed the Italo-German Panzer Army in recognition of the fact that it consisted of one German and three Italian corps. Though Messe replaced Rommel, he diplomatically deferred to him, and the two coexisted in what was theoretically the same command. On 23 February Army Group Afrika was created with Rommel in command. It included the Italo-German Panzer Army under Messe (renamed 1st Italian Army) and the German 5th Panzer Army in the north of Tunisia under General [[Hans-Jürgen von Arnim]].

The last Rommel offensive in North Africa was on 6 March 1943, when he attacked the Eighth Army at the [[Battle of Medenine]].{{sfn|Coggins|1980|p=134}} The attack was made with [[10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|10th]], [[15th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|15th]], and [[21st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|21st]] Panzer Divisions. Alerted by [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]] intercepts, Montgomery deployed large numbers of anti-tank guns in the path of the offensive. After losing 52 tanks, Rommel called off the assault.{{sfn|Coggins|1980|p=135}} On 9 March he returned to Germany.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=209}}{{why|date=February 2024}} Command was handed over to General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim. Rommel never returned to Africa.{{sfn|Coggins|1980|p=136}} The fighting there continued for another two months, until 13 May 1943, when Messe surrendered the army group to the Allies.

=== Italy 1943 ===
On 23 July 1943, Rommel was moved to [[Greece]] as commander of [[Army Group E]] to counter a possible British invasion. He arrived in Greece on 25 July but was recalled to Berlin the same day following [[Mussolini]]'s dismissal from office. This caused the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht|German High Command]] to review the defensive integrity of the Mediterranean and it was decided that Rommel should be posted to Italy as commander of the newly formed [[Army Group B]]. On 16 August 1943, Rommel's headquarters moved to [[Lake Garda]] in northern Italy and he formally assumed command of the group, consisting of the [[44th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|44th Infantry Division]], the [[26th Panzer Division]] and the [[1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler]]. When Italy announced its armistice with the Allies on 8 September, Rommel's group took part in [[Operation Achse]], disarming the Italian forces.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|pp=115–116}}

Hitler met with Rommel and Kesselring to discuss future operations in Italy on 30 September 1943. Rommel insisted on a defensive line north of Rome, while Kesselring was more optimistic and advocated holding a line south of Rome. Hitler preferred Kesselring's recommendation, and therefore revoked his previous decision for the subordination of Kesselring's forces to Rommel's army group. On 19 October, Hitler decided that Kesselring would be the overall commander of the forces in Italy, sidelining Rommel.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=117}}

Rommel had wrongly predicted that the collapse of the German line in Italy would be fast. On 21 November, Hitler gave Kesselring overall command of the Italian theatre, moving Rommel and Army Group B to [[Normandy]] in France with responsibility for defending the French coast against the long-anticipated Allied invasion.{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=117}}

=== Atlantic Wall 1944 ===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-300-1863-29, Riva-Bella, Waffenvorführung Panzerwerfer, Rommel.jpg|thumb|right|Rommel observes the fall of shot at Riva-Bella, just north of Caen in the area that would become [[Sword Beach]] in Normandy.]]
On 4 November 1943, Rommel became General Inspector of the Western Defences. He was given a staff that befitted an army group commander, and the powers to travel, examine and make suggestions on how to improve the defences. Hitler, who was having a disagreement with him over military matters, intended to use Rommel as a psychological trump card.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=215}}

There was broad disagreement in the German High Command as to how best to meet the expected Allied invasion of Northern France. The Commander-in-Chief West, Gerd von Rundstedt, believed there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches because of the Allied navies' firepower, as had been experienced at [[Allied invasion of Italy#German counterattacks|Salerno]].{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=69}} He argued that the German armour should be held in reserve well inland near [[Paris]], where they could be used to counter-attack in force in a more traditional military doctrine. The allies could be allowed to extend themselves deep into France, where a battle for control would be fought, allowing the Germans to envelop the allied forces in a pincer movement, cutting off their avenue of retreat. He feared the piecemeal commitment of their armoured forces would cause them to become caught in a battle of attrition which they could not hope to win.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=69}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-719-0240-35, Pas de Calais, Atlantikwall, Luftlandehindernisse.jpg|thumb|left| A sketch by Rommel. His words on the picture: "Patterns for anti-airlanding obstacles. Now to be spaced irregularly instead of regularly". {{ill|The House of Local History of Baden-Württemberg|de|Haus der Geschichte Baden-Württemberg}} now keeps several of these, some hand-coloured by Rommel himself.{{sfn|Fleischhauer|Friedmann|2012}}]]

The notion of holding the armour inland to use as a mobile reserve force from which they could mount a powerful counterattack applied the classic use of armoured formations as seen in France in 1940. These tactics were still effective on the Eastern Front, where control of the air was important but did not dominate the action. Rommel's own experiences at the end of the North African campaign revealed to him that the Germans would not be able to preserve their armour from air attack for this type of mass assault.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=69}} Rommel believed their only opportunity would be to oppose the landings directly at the beaches, and to counterattack there before the invaders could become well-established. Though there had been some defensive positions established and gun emplacements made, the [[Atlantic Wall]] was a token defensive line. Rundstedt had confided to Rommel that it was for propaganda purposes only.{{sfn|Lewin|1998|p=213}}

Upon arriving in Northern France, Rommel was dismayed by the lack of completed works. According to [[Friedrich Ruge|Ruge]], Rommel was in a staff position and could not issue orders, but he made every effort to explain his plan to commanders down to the platoon level, who took up his words eagerly, but "more or less open" opposition from the above slowed down the process.<ref name="Ruge160415"/> Rundstedt intervened and supported Rommel's request for being made a commander.{{sfn|Brighton|2008|p=247}} It was granted on 15 January 1944.<ref name="Ruge160415">{{cite web|last1=Ruge|last2=Dihm|first1=Friedrich|first2=Friedrich|title=Rommel and the Atlantic Wall December 1943 – July 1944 Oral History – World War II – Invasion of Normandy (1944)|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/r/rommel-atlantic-wall.html#352|website=Naval History and Heritage Command (US)|date=16 April 2015|access-date=16 August 2016|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130183554/https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/r/rommel-atlantic-wall.html#352|url-status=live}}</ref>

He and his staff set out to improve the fortifications along the [[Atlantic Wall]] with great energy and engineering skill.{{refn|Lieb: Of course, Rommel did not conceive all these devices himself&nbsp;...{{Sfn|Lieb|2014|p=120}}|group=N}}{{refn|Earle Rice, historian and senior design engineer in aerospace and nuclear industries: he would add all manner of ingenious obstacles and impedance devices to the anticipated landing areas. But&nbsp;... shortages of concrete and other materials and insufficient time prevented him from completing the Atlantic Wall to his satisfaction.{{sfn|Rice|2009|pp=89–90}}|group=N}}{{refn|Zaloga, historian and military technology expert: Rommel and his headquarters developed a variety of obstacles to interfere with landing craft. This was Rommel's single most important contribution to the defence of the Normandy coast&nbsp;... Rommel's pet project, the coastal obstacles, had proven to be one of the most successful innovations in the German defences.{{sfn|Zaloga|2013a|pp=53, 57}}|group=N}} This was a compromise: Rommel now commanded the 7th and 15th armies; he also had authority over a 20-kilometre-wide strip of coastal land between [[Zuiderzee]] and the mouth of the Loire. The chain of command was convoluted: the air force and navy had their own chiefs, as did the South and Southwest France and the Panzer group; Rommel also needed Hitler's permission to use the tank divisions.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=219}} Rommel had millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on the beaches and throughout the countryside, including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings, the so-called [[Rommel's asparagus]]{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=121}} (the Allies would later counter these with [[Hobart's Funnies]]{{sfn|Rice|2009|p=90}}). In April 1944, Rommel promised Hitler that the preparations would be complete by 1 May, a promise he failed to deliver. By the time of the Allied invasion, the preparations were far from finished. The quality of some of the troops manning them was poor and many bunkers lacked sufficient stocks of ammunition.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=121}}

Rundstedt expected the Allies to invade in the [[Pas-de-Calais]] because it was the shortest crossing point from Britain, its port facilities were essential to supplying a large invasion force, and the distance from Calais to Germany was relatively short.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=60}} Rommel and Hitler's views on the matter are a matter of debate between authors, with both seeming to change their positions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pinkus|first1=Oscar|title=The War Aims and Strategies of Adolf Hitler|date=2005|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-2054-4|page=432|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gPnjXC1lEJ8C&pg=PA432}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradham|first1=Randolph|title=To the last Man|date=2012|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-84832-665-1|page=55|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PVd-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chant|first1=Christopher|title=Hitler's Generals|date=1998|publisher=Salamander Books, Limited|page=62}}</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-300-1863-33A, Riva-Bella, Waffenvorführung Panzerwerfer, Rommel.jpg|thumb|right|Inspecting 21st Panzer Division troops and a mule track carrier of the Nebelwerfer]]
Hitler vacillated between the two strategies. In late April, he ordered the [[I SS Panzer Corps]] placed near Paris, far enough inland to be useless to Rommel, but not far enough for Rundstedt. Rommel moved those armoured formations under his command as far forward as possible, ordering General [[Erich Marcks]], commanding the 84th Corps defending the Normandy section, to move his reserves into the frontline. Rundstedt was willing to delegate a majority of the responsibilities to Rommel (the central reserve was Rundstedt's idea but he did not oppose some form of coastal defence), Rommel's strategy of an armour-supported coastal defence line was opposed by some officers, most notably [[Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg]], who was supported by Guderian.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=69}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=Gordon|title=US Army in WW II: European Theater of Operations, Cross Channel Attack|date=1951|isbn=978-0-7948-3739-6|page=247|publisher=Government Printing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSAW3D9GIHQC&pg=PA247}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Andrew|title=D-Day To Berlin|date=2004|publisher=Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-340-83397-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iSAW3D9GIHQC&pg=PA247}}</ref>{{sfn|Brighton|2008|p=247}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Keegan|first1=John|title=The Book of War: 25 Centuries of Great War Writing – On the Other Side of the Hill|date=1999|publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-029655-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4c6n8T9rNeMC&pg=PT359}}</ref> Hitler compromised and gave Rommel three divisions (the 2nd, the 21st and the 116th Panzer), let Rundstedt retain four and turned the other three to Army Group G, pleasing no one.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Levine|first1=Joshua|title=Operation Fortitude: The Story of the Spies and the Spy Operation That Saved D-Day|date=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7627-7735-8|pages=7–9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQWiCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8}}</ref>

The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for [[D-Day]] (see [[Operation Fortitude]]), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Army commanders in France believed there would be two invasions, with the main invasion coming at the Pas-de-Calais. Rommel drove defensive preparations all along the coast of Northern France, particularly concentrating on fortification building in the [[River Somme]] estuary. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 nearly all the German staff officers, including Hitler's staff, believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the main invasion site, and continued to believe so even after the landings in Normandy had occurred.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=89}}
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-718-0149-12A, Paris, Rommel, von Rundstedt, Gause und Zimmermann.jpg|thumb|left|Generalfeldmarschälle [[Gerd von Rundstedt]] and Erwin Rommel meeting in Paris]]

The 5 June storm in the channel seemed to make a landing very unlikely, and a number of the senior officers left their units for training exercises and various other efforts. On 4 June the chief meteorologist of the 3 Air Fleet reported that weather in the channel was so poor there could be no landing attempted for two weeks. Rommel left France on 5 June, and on the next day he was at home celebrating his wife's 50th birthday.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=121}} He was recalled and returned to his headquarters at 10{{nbsp}}pm. Meanwhile, earlier in the day, Rundstedt had requested the reserves be transferred to his command. At 10{{nbsp}}am Keitel advised that Hitler declined to release the reserves but that Rundstedt could move the [[12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend]] closer to the coast, with the [[Panzer-Lehr-Division]] placed on standby. Later in the day, Rundstedt received authorisation to move additional units in preparation for a counterattack, which Rundstedt decided to launch on 7 June. Upon arrival, Rommel concurred with the plan. By nightfall, Rundstedt, Rommel and Speidel continued to believe that the Normandy landing might have been a diversionary attack, as the Allied deception measures still pointed towards Calais. The 7 June counterattack did not take place because Allied air bombardments prevented the 12th SS's timely arrival.{{sfn|Messenger|2009|pp=168–170}} All this made the German command structure in France in disarray during the opening hours of the D-Day invasion.{{sfn|Willmott|1984|p=83}}

The Allies secured five beachheads by nightfall of 6 June, landing 155,000 troops.{{sfn|Messenger|2009|p=169}} The Allies pushed ashore and expanded their beachhead despite strong German resistance. Rommel believed that if his armies pulled out of range of Allied naval fire, it would give them a chance to regroup and re-engage them later with a better chance of success. While he managed to convince Rundstedt, they still needed to win over Hitler. At a meeting with Hitler at his [[Wolfsschlucht II]] headquarters in [[Margival]] in northern France on 17 June, Rommel warned Hitler about the inevitable collapse in the German defences but was rebuffed and told to focus on military operations.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|p=125}}{{sfn|Hart|2014|p=146}}

By mid-July the German position was crumbling. On 17 July 1944, as Rommel was returning from visiting the headquarters of the I SS Panzer Corps, a fighter plane piloted by either [[Charley Fox]] of [[412 Transport Squadron|412 Squadron RCAF]],<ref name="Telegraph">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/3381986/Flight-Lieutenant-Charley-Fox.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/3381986/Flight-Lieutenant-Charley-Fox.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Obituary: Flight Lieutenant Charley Fox|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=4 November 2008}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[:fr:Jacques Remlinger|Jacques Remlinger]] of [[No. 602 Squadron RAF]],<ref name="Oraison">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20211206201612/http://www.pierre-clostermann.com/Resources/Allocution_JR.pdf "funeral oration"]}}, by Pierre Clostermann.</ref><ref>Véronique Chemla, "[http://www.veroniquechemla.info/2012/07/jacques-remlinger-1923-2002-pilote-de.html Jacques Remlinger (1923–2002), pilote chasse de la RAF et des FAFL] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206201613/http://www.veroniquechemla.info/2012/07/jacques-remlinger-1923-2002-pilote-de.html |date=6 December 2021 }}", 18 juin 2015.</ref> or [[Johannes Jacobus le Roux]] of [[No. 602 Squadron RAF]]<ref>Marco Mattioli, ''"Chris" Le Roux, l'uomo che attaccò Rommel'', in Aerei nella Storia, nº 76, Parma, West-Ward Edizioni, febbraio-marzo 2011, pp. 12–15, {{ISSN|1591-1071}} (WC · ACNP).</ref> strafed his staff car near [[Sainte-Foy-de-Montgommery]]. The driver sped up and attempted to get off the main roadway, but a 20&nbsp;mm round shattered his left arm, causing the vehicle to veer off the road and crash into trees. Rommel was thrown from the car, suffering injuries to the left side of his face from glass shards and three fractures to his skull.<ref name="Telegraph"/>{{sfn|Hoffman|2004|p=65}} He was hospitalised with major head injuries (assumed to be almost certainly fatal).{{sfn|Marshall|1994|p=137}}

=== Plot against Hitler ===
{{Main|20 July plot}}
The role that Rommel played in the military's [[German resistance to Nazism|resistance against Hitler]] or the [[20 July plot]] is difficult to ascertain as most of the leaders who were directly involved did not survive, and limited documentation exists on the conspirators' plans and preparations.{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p=57}}{{sfn|Beckett|2014|p=6}} One piece of evidence that points to the possibility that Rommel came to support the assassination plan was [[Heinrich Eberbach|General Eberbach]]'s confession to his son (eavesdropped on by British agencies) while in British captivity which stated that Rommel explicitly said to him that Hitler and his close associates had to be killed because this would be the only way out for Germany.<ref name="the Fuehrer had to go&nbsp;...">{{cite book|last1=Schröder|first1=Stephen Schröder|title=Zwanzigste Juli 1944 – Profile, Motive, Desiderate|isbn=978-3-8258-1171-6|page=191|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpbMV5fIWzEC&pg=PA191|year=2008|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Prados|first1=John|title=Normandy Crucible: The Decisive Battle that Shaped World War II in Europe|isbn=978-1-101-51661-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LKojFcDjF7IC&pg=PT156|date=2011|publisher=Penguin }}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p= 56}}{{sfn|Neitzel|2007|p=103}} This conversation occurred about a month before Rommel was coerced into suicide.

Other notable evidence includes the papers of [[Rudolf Hartmann]] (who survived the later purge) and [[Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel]], who were among the leaders of the military resistance (alongside Rommel's chief of staff General [[Hans Speidel]], Colonel [[Karl-Richard Koßmann]], Colonel [[Eberhard Finckh]] and Lieutenant Colonel [[Caesar von Hofacker]]). These papers, accidentally discovered by historian Christian Schweizer in 2018 while doing research on Rudolf Hartmann, include Hartmann's eyewitness account of a conversation between Rommel and Stülpnagel in May 1944, as well as photos of the mid-May 1944 meeting between the inner circle of the resistance and Rommel at Koßmann's house. According to Hartmann, by the end of May, in another meeting at Hartmann's quarters in Mareil–Marly, Rommel showed "decisive determination" and clear approval of the inner circle's plan.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Klaper|first1=Elisabeth|title=Widerstandskämpfer und Demokrat|url=http://www.murrhardter-zeitung.de/node/1127424|work=Murrhardter Zeitung|date=28 April 2018|archive-date=20 April 2019|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420063023/https://www.murrhardter-zeitung.de/node/1127424|url-status=live}}</ref> In a post-war account by [[Karl Strölin]], three of Rommel's friends—the ''Oberbürgermeister'' of Stuttgart, Strölin (who had served with Rommel in the First World War), [[Alexander von Falkenhausen]] and Stülpnagel—began efforts to bring Rommel into the anti-Hitler conspiracy in early 1944. According to Strölin, sometime in February, Rommel agreed to lend his support to the resistance.{{sfn|Shirer|1960|pp=1031, 1177}}
[[File:A meeting between the military resistance's inner circle and Rommel, Mareil-Marly, 15. May 1944.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A meeting of the military resistance's inner circle and Rommel at [[Mareil-Marly]] 15 May 1944. From left, Speidel – behind, Rommel – centre, Stülpnagel – front. The officer standing left is Rudolf Hartmann. The others are unknown.]]

On 15 April 1944, Rommel's new chief of staff, [[Hans Speidel]], arrived in Normandy and reintroduced Rommel to Stülpnagel.{{sfn|Hart|2014|pp=142–150}} Speidel had previously been connected to [[Carl Goerdeler]], the civilian leader of the resistance, but not to the plotters led by [[Claus von Stauffenberg]], and came to Stauffenberg's attention only upon his appointment to Rommel's headquarters. The conspirators felt they needed the support of a field marshal on active duty. [[Erwin von Witzleben]], who would have become commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht had the plot succeeded, was a field marshal, but had been inactive since 1942. The conspirators gave instructions to Speidel to bring Rommel into their circle.{{sfn|Hart|2014|pp=139–142}} Speidel met with former foreign minister [[Konstantin von Neurath]] and Strölin on 27 May in Germany, ostensibly at Rommel's request, although the latter was not present. Neurath and Strölin suggested opening immediate surrender negotiations in the West, and, according to Speidel, Rommel agreed to further discussions and preparations.{{sfn|Hart|2014|p=146}}  Around the same timeframe, the plotters in Berlin were not aware that Rommel had allegedly decided to take part in the conspiracy. On 16 May, they informed [[Allen Dulles]], through whom they hoped to negotiate with the Western Allies, that Rommel could not be counted on for support.{{sfn|Hart|2014|pp=145–146}}

At least initially, Rommel opposed assassinating Hitler.{{sfn|Naumann|2009|pp=189–191}} According to some authors,{{sfn|Remy|2002|pp=241–355}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beevor|first1=Antony|title=D-Day: The Battle for Normandy|isbn=978-1-101-14872-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rB1iBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT342|date= 2012|publisher=Penguin Books Ltd. }}</ref><ref name="kas.de" />{{sfn|Faltin|2014|loc=Cornelia Hecht considered it (Eberbach's testimony) authentic, "Why did he have to lie?"}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Richie|first1=Alexandra|title=Warsaw 1944: Hitler, Himmler, and the Warsaw Uprising|date= 2013|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4668-4847-4|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uQouAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26}}</ref> he gradually changed his attitude. After the war, his widow—among others—maintained that Rommel believed an assassination attempt would spark a civil war in Germany and Austria, and Hitler would have become a martyr for a lasting cause.{{sfn|Hart|2014|p=140: Sourced to Speidel (1950) ''Invasion 1944: We Defended Normandy'', pp. 68, 73}} Instead, Rommel reportedly suggested that Hitler be arrested and brought to trial for his crimes; he did not attempt to implement this plan when Hitler visited Margival, France, on 17 June. The arrest plan would have been highly improbable as Hitler's security was extremely tight. Rommel would have known this, having commanded Hitler's army protection detail in 1939.{{sfn|Hart|2014|pp=145–147}} He was in favour of peace negotiations and repeatedly urged Hitler to negotiate with the Allies which is dubbed by some as "hopelessly naive" considering no one would trust Hitler.{{sfn|Pimlott|2003|pp=213, 218}}{{sfn|Scheck|2010}}<ref>{{cite news|last1=Reuth|first1=Ralf Georg|title=Das Rommel- Komplott|url=https://www.welt.de/print-wams/article116801/Das-Rommel-Komplott.html|work=Die Welt|year=2004|archive-date=6 December 2021|access-date=6 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206212642/https://www.welt.de/print-wams/article116801/Das-Rommel-Komplott.html|url-status=live}}</ref>  "As naive as it was idealistic, the attitude he showed to the man he had sworn loyalty".{{sfn|Knopp|2013|p=81}}

According to Reuth, the reason Lucie Rommel did not want her husband to be associated with any conspiracy was that even after the war, the German population neither grasped nor wanted to comprehend the reality of the genocide, thus conspirators were still treated as traitors and outcasts.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|pp=119–120}} On the other hand, the resistance depended on the reputation of Rommel to win over the population.{{sfn|Hecht|2008|pp=90–137}}{{sfn|Hoffmann|1996|p=352}} Some officers who had worked with Rommel also recognised the relationship between Rommel and the resistance: Westphal said that Rommel did not want any more senseless sacrifices.{{sfn|Hecht|2008|pp=90–137}} Butler, using Ruge's recollections, reports that when told by Hitler himself that "no one will make peace with me", Rommel told Hitler that if he was the obstacle to peace, he should resign or kill himself, but Hitler insisted on fanatical defence.{{sfn|Butler|2015|p=495}}

Reuth, based on Jodl's testimony, reports that Rommel forcefully presented the situation and asked for political solutions from Hitler, who rebuffed that Rommel should leave politics to him.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=45}} Brighton comments that Rommel seemed devoted, even though he did not have much faith in Hitler anymore considering he kept informing Hitler in person and by letter about his changing beliefs despite facing a military dilemma as well as a personal struggle.{{sfn|Brighton|2008|pp=390–391}} Lieb remarks that Rommel's attitude in describing the situation honestly and requiring political solutions was almost without precedent and contrary to the attitude of many other generals.{{sfn|Lieb|2014|pp=132–136}}<ref name="kas.de" /> Remy comments that Rommel put himself and his family (which he had briefly considered evacuating to France, but refrained from doing so) at risk for the resistance out of a combination of his concern for the fate of Germany, his indignation at atrocities and the influence of people around him.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=337}}

On 15 July, Rommel wrote a letter to Hitler giving him a "last chance" to end the hostilities with the Western Allies, urging Hitler to "draw the proper conclusions without delay". What Rommel did not know was that the letter took two weeks to reach Hitler because of Kluge's precautions.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=301}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kane|first1=Robert B.|title=Disobedience and Conspiracy in the German Army, 1918–1945|date=2002|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-1104-7|url=https://archive.org/details/disobediencecons00kane|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/disobediencecons00kane/page/187 187]}}</ref> Various authors report that many German generals in Normandy, including some SS officers like [[Paul Hausser|Hausser]], [[Wilhelm Bittrich|Bittrich]], [[Sepp Dietrich|Dietrich]] (a hard-core Nazi and Hitler's long-time supporter) and Rommel's former opponent Geyr von Schweppenburg, pledged support to him even against Hitler's orders, while Kluge supported him with much hesitation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=David|title=A Magnificent Disaster: The Failure of Market Garden, the Arnhem Operation, September 1944|date=2011|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-935149-97-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIQ_0WtkGjYC&pg=PT74}}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p=57}}{{sfn|Brighton|2008|p=295}} Rundstedt encouraged Rommel to carry out his plans but refused to do anything himself, remarking that it had to be a man who was still young and loved by the people,{{sfn|Shepherd|2016|p=587}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Messenger|first1=Charles|title=The Last Prussian: A Biography of Field Marshal Gerd Von Rundstedt|date=2012|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-4738-1946-7|page=191|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9yfAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA191}}</ref> while [[Erich von Manstein]] was also approached by Rommel but categorically refused, although he did not report them to Hitler either.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lemay|first1=Benoît|title=Erich Von Manstein: Hitler's Master Strategist|date=2010|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-935149-55-2|page=405|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Amn_pandW3MC&pg=PA405}}</ref> [[Peter Hoffmann (historian)|Peter Hoffmann]] reports that he also attracted into his orbit officials who had previously refused to support the conspiracy, like [[Julius Dorpmüller]] and [[Karl Kaufmann]] (according to Russell A. Hart, reliable details of the conversations are now lost, although they certainly met).{{sfn|Hoffmann|1996|p=352}}{{sfn|Hart|2014|p=145}}

On 17 July 1944, Rommel was incapacitated by an Allied air attack, which many authors describe as a fateful event that drastically altered the outcome of the bomb plot.{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p=46}}{{sfn|Rice |2009 |p=95 }}{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=306}} Writer Ernst Jünger commented: "The blow that felled Rommel&nbsp;... robbed the plan of the shoulders that were to be entrusted the double weight of war and civil war—the only man who had enough naivety to counter the simple terror that those he was about to go against possessed."{{sfn|Remy|2002|pp=306–307}} After the failed bomb attack of 20 July, many conspirators were arrested and the dragnet expanded to thousands.{{sfn|Hart|2014|p=152}} Rommel was first implicated when Stülpnagel, after his suicide attempt, repeatedly muttered "Rommel" in delirium.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Blumenson|title=Heroes Never Die: Warriors and Warfare in World War II|date=2001|publisher=Cooper Square Press|isbn=978-0-8154-1152-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/heroesneverdiewa0000blum/page/375 375]|url=https://archive.org/details/heroesneverdiewa0000blum/page/375}}</ref>{{sfn|Brighton|2008}} Under torture, Hofacker named Rommel as one of the participants.{{sfn|Hart|2014|pp=141, 152}} Additionally, Goerdeler had written down Rommel's name on a list as potential Reich President (according to Stroelin. They had not managed to announce this intention to Rommel yet and he probably never heard of it until the end of his life).{{sfn|Hansen|2014|p=51}}{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=183}}{{sfn|Young|1950|p=197}}{{sfn|Shirer|1960|p=1031}}

On 27 September, Martin Bormann submitted to Hitler a memorandum which claimed that "the late General Stülpnagel, Colonel Hofacker, Kluge's nephew who has been executed, Lieutenant Colonel Rathgens, and several ... living defendants have testified that Field Marshal Rommel was perfectly in the picture about the assassination plan and has promised to be at the disposal of the New Government."{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=293}}<ref name="Rommel ist und bleibt ein Mythos">{{cite web |last1=Lasserre |first1=Caroline |title=Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung |url=http://www.kas.de/niedersachsen/de/publications/38303/ |access-date=3 August 2016 |date=7 July 2014 |archive-date=11 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211195434/http://www.kas.de/niedersachsen/de/publications/38303/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Gestapo agents were sent to Rommel's house in Ulm and placed him under surveillance.{{sfn|Reuth|2005|p=198}} Historian Peter Lieb considers the memorandum, as well as Eberbach's conversation and the testimonies of surviving resistance members (including Hartmann), to be the three key sources that indicate Rommel's support of the assassination plan. He further notes that while Speidel had an interest in promoting his own post-war career, his testimonies should not be dismissed, considering his bravery as an early resistance figure.{{sfn|Kellerhoff|2018}} Remy writes that even more important than Rommel's attitude to the assassination is the fact Rommel had his own plan to end the war. He began to contemplate this plan some months after El Alamein and carried it out with a lonely decision and conviction, and in the end, had managed to bring military leaders in the West to his side.{{sfn|Remy|2002|p=358}}