Editing Edward I of England (section)

==Civil war and crusades, 1264–1273==

===Second Barons' War===
{{Main|Second Barons' War}}

From 1264 to 1267 the [[Second Barons' War]] was fought between baronial forces led by the [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Earl of Leicester]] and those who remained loyal to the King. Edward initiated the fighting by capturing the rebel-held city of [[Gloucester]]. When [[Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby]], came to the assistance of the baronial forces, Edward negotiated a truce with the Earl. Edward later broke the terms of the agreement.<ref name= Hamilton53>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=53}}.</ref> He then captured [[Northampton]] from [[Simon de Montfort the Younger]] before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=42–43}}.</ref> The baronial and royalist forces met at the [[Battle of Lewes]], on 14&nbsp;May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of the Earl of Leicester's forces. Unwisely, he pursued the scattered enemy, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sadler|2008|pp=55–69}}.</ref> By the [[Mise of Lewes]], Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as [[hostage]]s to Leicester.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maddicott|1983|pp=592–599}}.</ref>

[[File:Montfort Evesham.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|alt=There are three sections. In the left, a group of knights in armour are holding a naked body, seemingly attacking it with their swords. In the middle, a naked body lies with severed arms, legs and head nest to a uniform, arms and another prone body. The right section seemingly depicts a pile of dead bodies in armour.|Medieval manuscript showing the [[Simon de Montfort|Earl of Leicester]]'s mutilated body at the field of [[battle of Evesham|Evesham]]]]
Edward remained in captivity until March 1265, and after his release was kept under strict surveillance.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=47–48}}; {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=53}}.</ref> In [[Hereford]], he escaped on 28&nbsp;May while out riding and joined up with [[Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester]], who had recently defected to the King's side.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=48–49}}.</ref> The Earl of Leicester's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] and Gloucester with little effort.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=49–50}}.</ref> Meanwhile, Leicester had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son [[Simon de Montfort the Younger|Simon]]. Edward made a surprise attack at [[Kenilworth Castle]], where the younger Montfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the Earl of Leicester.<ref>{{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|pp=201–202}}.</ref> The two forces then met at the [[Battle of Evesham]], on 4&nbsp;August 1265.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=63}}.</ref> The Earl of Leicester stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and his corpse mutilated on the field.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sadler|2008|pp=105–109}}.</ref>

Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy. During the summer campaign he began to learn from his mistakes and gained the respect and admiration of contemporaries through actions such as showing clemency towards his enemies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=75–76}}.</ref> The war did not end with the Earl of Leicester's death, and Edward participated in the continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with Simon the Younger and his associates at the [[Isle of Axholme]] in Lincolnshire, and in March 1266 he led a successful assault on the [[Cinque Ports]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=55}}.</ref> A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory [[Dictum of Kenilworth]] in October 1266.<ref name=Prestwich2007P117/>{{Efn|The Dictum restored land to the disinherited rebels, in exchange for a fine decided by their level of involvement in the wars.<ref name="Prestwich2007P117">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=117}}.</ref>}} In April it seemed as if the Earl of Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came to an agreement.<ref name=Prestwich2007P121/>{{Efn|The essential concession was that the disinherited would now be allowed to take possession of their lands ''before'' paying the fines.<ref name="Prestwich2007P121">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|2005|p=121}}.</ref>}} Around this time, Edward was made [[Steward (office)|steward]] of England and began to exercise influence in the government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jobson|2012|pp=164–165}}.</ref> He was also appointed [[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]] in 1265.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=76}}</ref> Despite this, he was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars as he was planning his forthcoming [[crusade]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=63}}.</ref>

===Crusade and accession===
{{See also|Eighth Crusade|Ninth Crusade}}
[[File:Ninth Crusade-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.19|alt=Troop movements by the Franks, Mamluks and Mongols between Egypt, Cyprus and the Levant in 1271, as described in the corresponding article.|Map of the Holy Land depicting operations during Edward's Crusade:
{{legend-line|#009e73ff solid 3px|Mamluks}}
{{legend-line|#0000ffff solid 3px|Crusaders}}
{{legend-line|#e69f00ff solid 3px|Mongols}}]]

Edward pledged himself to undertake a crusade in an elaborate ceremony on 24&nbsp;June 1268, with his brother [[Edmund Crouchback]] and cousin Henry of Almain. Some of Edward's former adversaries, such as [[John de Vescy]] and the 7th Earl of Gloucester, similarly committed themselves, although some, like Gloucester, did not ultimately participate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1986}}; {{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=83, 90–92}}.</ref> With the country pacified, the greatest impediment to the project was funding.<ref name="P71">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=71}}.</ref> King Louis&nbsp;IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loan of about £17,500.<ref name="P72">{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=72}}.</ref>{{efn|The price of 50,000 cows, or 23,000 horses.<ref>{{harvnb|National Archives|2024}}</ref>}} This was not enough, and the rest had to be raised through a direct tax on the [[laity]], which had not been levied since 1237.<ref name="P72"/> In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of one-twentieth of all movable property; in exchange the King agreed to reconfirm [[Magna Carta]], and to impose restrictions on Jewish money lending.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maddicott|1989|pp=107–110}}.</ref>{{Efn|The May 1270 Parliament confirmed an ordinance drafted at the Hilary Parliament of January 1269 preventing Jewish moneylenders from creating rent charges on debtors' lands, which often led debtors to lose the land itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Maddicott|2010|pp=268–269}}.</ref> }} On 20&nbsp;August Edward sailed from [[Dover]] for France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=92}}.</ref> Historians have not determined the size of his accompanying force with any certainty, but it was probably fewer than 1000&nbsp;men, including around 225&nbsp;[[knight]]s.<ref name="P71"/>

Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of [[Acre (Israel)|Acre]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], but King Louis and his brother [[Charles of Anjou]], the [[king of Sicily]], decided to attack the emirate of [[Tunis]] to establish a stronghold in North Africa.<ref name="P73">{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|p=210}}.</ref> The plan failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25&nbsp;August, killed Louis.{{Efn|The disease was either [[dysentery]] or [[typhus]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=210–211}}.</ref>}} By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed the [[Treaty of Tunis]] with the Emir, and there was little to do but return to Sicily.<ref name= Hamilton55>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=55}}.</ref> Further military action was postponed until the following spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded both Charles and [[Philip III of France|Philip III]], Louis's successor, from any further campaigning.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|p=211}}.</ref> Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9&nbsp;May 1271&nbsp;he landed at Acre.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=75}}.</ref>

The Christian situation in the [[Holy Land]] was precarious. [[Jerusalem]] had been reconquered by the Muslims in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=95}}.</ref> The Muslim states were on the offensive under the [[Mamluk]] leadership of [[Baibars]], and were threatening Acre. Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, but they stood little chance against Baibars's superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largely futile.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=76}}.</ref> An embassy to [[Abaqa]], the [[Ilkhan]] of the [[Mongols]], helped bring about [[Mongol invasions of Syria|an attack]] on [[Aleppo]] in the north, which distracted Baibars's forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|pp=97–98}}.</ref> The Mongol invasion ultimately failed. In November, Edward led a raid on [[Qaqun]], which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but this was unsuccessful. The situation in Acre grew desperate, and in May 1272&nbsp;[[Hugh III of Cyprus]], the nominal [[king of Jerusalem]], signed a ten-year truce with Baibars.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=77}}.</ref> Edward was initially defiant, but in June 1272 he was the victim of an assassination attempt by a member of the Syrian [[Order of Assassins]], supposedly ordered by Baibars. He managed to kill the assassin, but was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and was severely weakened over the following months. This persuaded Edward to abandon the campaign.<ref>{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=101}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=55}}</ref>{{Efn|The anecdote of Queen Eleanor saving Edward's life by sucking the poison out of his wound is almost certainly a later fabrication.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=78}}.</ref> Other accounts of the scene have Eleanor being led away weeping by [[John de Vescy]], and suggest that it was another of Edward's close friends, [[Otto de Grandson]], who attempted to suck the poison from the wound.<ref name="Morris2009P101">{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=101}}.</ref>}}

On 24&nbsp;September 1272 Edward left Acre. Shortly after arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16&nbsp;November.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|pp=78, 82}}.</ref> Edward was deeply saddened by this news,<ref>{{Harvnb|Salzman|1968|p=33}}.</ref> but rather than hurrying home, he made a leisurely journey northwards.<ref name= Hamilton56>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=56}}.</ref> This was due partly to his still-poor health, but also to a lack of urgency.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prestwich|1997|p=82}}.</ref> The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king after his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary.<ref name=Morris2009P104/>{{Efn|Though no written proof exists, it is assumed that this arrangement was agreed on before Edward's departure.<ref name="Morris2009P104">{{Harvnb|Morris|2009|p=104}}.</ref>}} In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by [[Robert Burnell]].<ref name=Carpenter2004:466>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=466}}.</ref> Edward passed through Italy and France, visiting [[Pope Gregory X]] and [[Homage (feudal)|paying homage]] to Philip III in Paris for his French domains.<ref>{{Harvnb|Salzman|1968|pp=34–35}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=516}}</ref> Edward travelled by way of [[Savoy]] to receive homage from his great-uncle [[Philip I, Count of Savoy|Count Philip I]] for castles in the [[Alps]] held by a treaty of 1246.<ref name= Hamilton56/>

Edward then journeyed to Gascony to put down a revolt headed by [[Gaston VII, Viscount of Béarn|Gaston de Béarn]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Carpenter|2004|p=466}}, {{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|pp=56–57}}</ref> While there, he launched an investigation into his feudal possessions, which, as Hamilton puts it, reflects "Edward's keen interest in administrative efficiency ... [and] reinforced Edward's position as lord in Aquitaine and strengthened the bonds of loyalty between the king-duke and his subjects".{{sfn|Hamilton|2010|pp=56–57}} Around the same time, the King organised political alliances with the kingdoms in [[Iberia]]. His four-year-old daughter [[Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar|Eleanor]] was promised in marriage to [[Alfonso III of Aragon|Alfonso]], the heir to the [[Crown of Aragon]], and Edward's heir [[Henry (son of Edward I)|Henry]] was betrothed to [[Joan I of Navarre|Joan]], heiress to the [[Kingdom of Navarre]].<ref name= Hamilton57>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=57}}.</ref> Neither union would come to fruition. On 2 August 1274 Edward returned to England, landing at Dover.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=57}}, {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=86}}.</ref> The thirty-five-year-old king held his [[coronation]] on 19 August at Westminster Abbey, alongside Queen Eleanor.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|2010|p=58}}, {{Harvnb|Powicke|1962|p=226}}; {{Harvnb|Chancellor|1981|p=88}}.</ref> Immediately after being [[anointed]] and crowned by [[Robert Kilwardby]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], Edward removed his crown, saying that he did not intend to wear it again until he had recovered all the crown lands that his father had surrendered during his reign.<ref name= Hamilton5758>{{Harvnb|Hamilton|2010|pp=57–58}}.</ref>