Editing Dragon (section)

==West Asia==
===Mesopotamia===
[[File:Sirrush.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[mušḫuššu]]'' is a serpentine, draconic monster from [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion|ancient Mesopotamian mythology]] with the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} Here it is shown as it appears in the [[Ishtar Gate]] from the city of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}}]]
Ancient people across the [[Near East]] believed in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} These ancient people were unaware of the existence of [[dinosaur]]s or similar creatures in the distant past.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n literature.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} In [[Sumerian poetry]], great kings are often compared to the ''[[Ušumgallu|ušumgal]]'', a gigantic, serpentine monster.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian artwork]] from the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian Period]] ({{circa}} 2334 – 2154 BC) until the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian Period]] (626 BC–539 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} It may have been known as the ''(ūmu) nā’iru'', which means "roaring weather beast",{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} and may have been associated with the god [[Hadad|Ishkur]] (Hadad).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian Period]] (911 BC–609 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} A relief probably commissioned by [[Sennacherib]] shows the gods [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]], and Adad standing on its back.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}}

Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the [[Hellenistic Period]] (323 BC–31 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} This creature, known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as the ''[[mušḫuššu]]'', meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god [[Ninazu]],{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} but later became the attendant to the [[Hurrian religion|Hurrian]] storm-god [[Tishpak]], as well as, later, Ninazu's son [[Ningishzida]], the Babylonian [[national god]] [[Marduk]], the scribal god [[Nabu]], and the Assyrian national god Ashur.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}}

Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of [[Tiamat]], the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos, slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic ''[[Enûma Eliš]]''.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty"{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}} all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}

===Levant===
[[File:Destruction of Leviathan.png|thumb|upright|''The Destruction of [[Leviathan]]'' (1865) by [[Gustave Doré]]]]
In the mythologies of the [[Ugarit]] region, specifically the [[Baal Cycle]] from the [[Ugaritic texts]], the sea-dragon [[Lotan|Lōtanu]] is described as "the twisting serpent / the powerful one with seven heads."{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}} In ''KTU'' 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god [[Baal]],{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}} but, in ''KTU'' 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess [[Anat]].{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}}

In the [[Hebrew Bible]], in the [[Psalms|Book of Psalms]], [[Psalm 74]], Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon [[Leviathan]], is slain by [[Yahweh]], god of the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as part of the creation of the world.{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}}{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Isaiah describes Leviathan as a {{lang|he-Latn|tanin}} ({{lang|he|תנין}}), which is translated as "sea monster", "serpent", or "dragon".<ref name="tanin-translation">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=Francis | last2=Gesenius | first2=Wilhelm | last3=Driver | first3=Samuel Rolles | last4=Briggs | first4=Charles Augustus | title=A Hebrew and English lexicon of the Old Testament | publisher=Oxford university Press | publication-place=Oxford | date=1906 | isbn=0-19-864301-2 | language=he|url=https://www.sefaria.org/BDB%2C_%D7%AA%D6%B7%D6%BC%D7%A0%D6%B4%D6%BC%D7%99%D7%9F.1?lang=bi&with=About&lang2=en}}</ref> In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of his impending overhaul of the universal order:{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|pages=129–130}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=14}}

{{Verse translation|lang1=he|rtl1=y|head1=Original Hebrew text|attr1={{bibleverse||Isaiah|27:1|HE}}|head2=English
|בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא יִפְקֹד יְהוָה בְּחַרְבּוֹ הַקָּשָׁה וְהַגְּדוֹלָה וְהַחֲזָקָה, עַל לִוְיָתָן נָחָשׁ בָּרִחַ, וְעַל לִוְיָתָן, נָחָשׁ עֲקַלָּתוֹן; וְהָרַג אֶת-הַתַּנִּין, אֲשֶׁר בַּיָּם
|In that day the LORD will take His sharp, great, and mighty sword, and bring judgment on Leviathan the fleeing serpent — Leviathan the coiling serpent — and He will slay the dragon of the sea.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://biblehub.com/bsb/isaiah/27.htm |title=Isaiah 27 BSB |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=biblehub.com |publisher=Online Parallel Bible Project |access-date=25 Jun 2024 |quote=}}</ref>}}

Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=102}} Job 41:19–21 states that Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=102}} In some parts of the Old Testament, Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced [[Rahab (Egypt)|Rahab]]'."{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..."{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt is described as a "dragon" (''tannîn'').{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} In the [[deuterocanonical]] story of [[Bel and the Dragon]] from the [[Book of Daniel]], the prophet [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]] sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians.{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair";{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} the dragon eats them and bursts open.<ref>Daniel 14:23–30</ref>{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}}

===Iran===
[[Azhdaha|Azhi Dahaka]] (Avestan Great Snake) is a dragon or demonic figure in the texts and mythology of Zoroastrian Persia, where he is one of the subordinates of Angra Mainyu. Alternate names include Azi Dahak, Dahaka, and Dahak. Aži (nominative ažiš) is the Avestan word for "serpent" or "dragon.<ref>For Azi Dahaka as dragon see: Ingersoll, Ernest, et al., (2013). The Illustrated Book of Dragons and Dragon Lore. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN B00D959PJ0</ref> The Avestan term Aži Dahāka and the Middle Persian azdahāg are the sources of the Middle Persian Manichaean demon of greed "Az", Old [[Armenian mythology|Armenian mythological]] figure [[Azhdahak (mythology)|Azhdahak]], Modern Persian 'aždehâ/aždahâ', Tajik Persian 'azhdahâ', Urdu 'azhdahā' (اژدها).
The name also migrated to Eastern Europe, assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness" or "water snake" in the Balkanic and Slavic languages.<ref>Appears numerous time in, for example: D. N. MacKenzie, Mani's Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.</ref><ref>Detelić, Mirjana. "St Paraskeve in the Balkan Context" In: Folklore 121, no. 1 (2010): 101 (footnote nr. 12). Accessed March 24, 2021. {{JSTOR|29534110}}.</ref><ref>Kropej, Monika. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=kSKrWkIBB0IC&pg=PA102 Supernatural beings from Slovenian myth and folktales]''. Ljubljana: Institute of Slovenian Ethnology at ZRC SAZU. 2012. p. 102. {{ISBN|978-961-254-428-7}}.</ref>

Despite the negative aspect of Aži Dahāka in mythology, dragons have been used on some banners of war throughout the history of Iranian peoples.

The [[Azhdarchid]] group of pterosaurs are named from a Persian word for "dragon" that ultimately comes from Aži Dahāka.

In Persian [[Sufism|Sufi]] literature, [[Rumi]] writes in his ''[[Masnavi]]''<ref>III: 976–1066; V: 120</ref> that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul (''[[nafs]]''), greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher = University of North Carolina Press |ol = 5422370M |isbn = 0807812234 |location = Chapel Hill |title = Mystical dimensions of Islam |url = https://archive.org/details/137665622MysticalDimensionsOfIslamAnnemarieSchimmel |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |lccn = 73016112 |date = 1975 |author-link = Annemarie Schimmel |access-date = 16 October 2022 | pages=111–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Savi, Julio |year=2008 |title=Towards the Summit of Reality |publisher=George Ronald |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-85398-522-8 |ol=23179261M }}</ref>

[[File:Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 - Aga Khan Museum - Toronto, Canada - DSC06935.jpg|thumb|Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 – Aga Khan Museum – Toronto, Canada]]
In Ferdowsi's ''[[Shahnameh]],'' the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] hero [[Rostam]] must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, [[Rakhsh]]. As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam's [[Rostam's Seven Labours|Seven Labors]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/gallery/dragon/dragon.html|title=Rakhsh helping Rostam defeat the dragon|website=British Library|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527031848/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/gallery/dragon/dragon.html|archive-date=27 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=231078&partId=1&searchText=Shahnameh&page=1|title=Rustam killing a dragon|website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/corner/shah/synopsis.html|title=Shahname Synopsis|website=British Library|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501133912/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/corner/shah/synopsis.html|archive-date=1 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the ''Shahnameh'' and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of ''[[Babr-e Bayan|Babr-e-Bayan]]''. In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China, depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the ''babr-e bayān''. In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed [[Rakhsh]]. On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In the [[Mandaeism|Mandean]] tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon, and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azdaha-dragon-various-kinds#pt1|title=Azdaha|website=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511102415/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azdaha-dragon-various-kinds#pt1|archive-date=11 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babr-e-bayan-or-babr|title=Babr-e-Bayan|website=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505023908/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babr-e-bayan-or-babr|archive-date=5 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>