Editing Domitian (section)

== Rise of the Flavians ==

=== Year of the Four Emperors ===
{{Main|Year of the Four Emperors}}
[[File:Roman Empire 69.svg|thumb|300px|The Roman Empire during the [[Year of the Four Emperors]] (69); Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus]]; Green areas indicate provinces loyal to [[Vitellius]]{{image reference needed|date=December 2022}}]]

On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed [[suicide]] and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the [[Roman Empire]]—[[Galba]], [[Otho]], [[Vitellius]] and [[Vespasian]]—successively vied for imperial power.<ref name=sullivan-69>Sullivan (1953), p. 69</ref> News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of [[Jerusalem]]. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor.<ref name=sullivan-69/> Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of [[Lusitania]] (modern Portugal). At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p.&nbsp;44</ref>

Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital [[History of Roman Egypt|province of Egypt]], which controlled the [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|grain supply to Rome]]. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire [[Cohortes urbanae|city garrison]] of Rome.<ref name="jones-domitian-11"/> Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p.&nbsp;45</ref> When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the [[First Battle of Bedriacum]], the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.<ref name=sullivan-68>Sullivan (1953), p. 68</ref> Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with [[Mucianus|Gaius Licinius Mucianus]], the governor of Syria, against Vitellius.<ref name=sullivan-68/> A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled to [[Alexandria]], leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.<ref>Wellesley (2000), p.&nbsp;126</ref>

In Rome, Domitian was placed under [[house arrest]] by Vitellius, as a safeguard against Flavian aggression.<ref name=waters-54/> Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69, the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian (under Marcus Antonius Primus) met at the [[Second Battle of Bedriacum#Second Battle of Bedriacum|Second Battle of Bedriacum]], which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 3#34|III.34]]</ref> In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II but the soldiers of the [[Praetorian Guard]]—the imperial [[bodyguard]]—considered such a resignation disgraceful and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.<ref>Wellesley (2000), pp. 166, 189</ref> On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the [[Temple of Concord]] but at the last minute retraced his steps to the Imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the [[Capitoline Hill]].<ref name=jones-14>Jones (1992), p. 14</ref>

During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of [[Isis]] and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus.<ref name=jones-14/> By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'' and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.<ref name=jones-14/> The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.<ref>Wellesley (1956), p. 213</ref>

=== Aftermath of the war ===
[[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 047b.jpg|thumb|190px|''[[The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis]]'' (detail), by [[Rembrandt]] (1661). During the [[Batavian rebellion]], Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers.]]
Although the war had officially ended, a state of [[anarchy]] and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus|Mucianus]] in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year.<ref name=jones-14/> In the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. He received the title of ''Caesar'' and was appointed praetor with consular power.<ref name=jones-15>Jones (1992), p. 15</ref> The ancient historian [[Tacitus]] describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#40|IV.40]]</ref> Domitian's authority was merely [[wikt:nominal|nominal]], foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function.<ref name=jones-15/>

Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's [[wikt:Entourage|entourage]], promoting away Flavian generals such as [[Arrius Varus]] and [[Antonius Primus]] and replacing them with more reliable men such as [[Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (consul)|Arrecinus Clemens]].<ref name=jones-15/> Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the [[Batavian rebellion|Batavian revolt]] in [[Gaul]]. [[Batavians|Batavian]] auxiliaries of the [[Rhine]] legions, led by [[Gaius Julius Civilis]], had rebelled with the aid of a faction of [[Treveri]] under the command of [[Julius Classicus]]. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]].<ref name=jones-16/>

Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 4#68|IV.68]]</ref> When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.<ref name=jones-16/> Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed.<ref name=jones-16/> With the return of Vespasian in late September, his political role was rendered all but obsolete and Domitian withdrew from government devoting his time to arts and literature.<ref name=jones-17>Jones (1992), p. 17</ref>

=== Marriage ===

[[File:Domitia.JPG|thumb|173px|left|A bust of [[Domitia Longina]] ([[Louvre]])]]

Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful. In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, [[Julia Flavia]],<ref name=jones-33>Jones (1992), p. 33</ref> but Domitian was adamant in his love for [[Domitia Longina]], going so far as to persuade her husband, [[Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus]], to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.<ref name=jones-33/> Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]], a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia. Following the failed [[Pisonian conspiracy]] against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. She was also a granddaughter of [[Junia Lepida]], a descendant of Emperor [[Augustus]]. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Instead, connections to [[Claudius]] and [[Britannicus]] were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated.<ref>Jones (1992), p. 34</ref>

In 80, Domitia and Domitian's only attested son was born. It is not known what the boy's name was, but he died in childhood in 83.<ref name=jones-36>Jones (1993), p. 36</ref> Shortly following his accession as emperor, Domitian bestowed the honorific title of ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'' upon Domitia, while their son was [[apotheosis|deified]], appearing as such on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of coin types from this period.<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 161–162</ref> Nevertheless, the marriage appears to have faced a significant crisis in 83. For reasons unknown, Domitian briefly [[exile]]d Domitia, and then soon recalled her, either out of love or due to rumours that he was carrying on a relationship with his niece Julia Flavia.<ref name=jones-39>Jones (1992), p. 39</ref> Jones argues that most likely he did so for her failure to produce an heir.<ref name=jones-36/> By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace,<ref>Varner (1995), p. 200</ref> where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident.<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 34–35</ref> Little is known of Domitia's activities as empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited. From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the [[amphitheatre]], while the Jewish writer [[Flavius Josephus|Josephus]] speaks of benefits he received from her.<ref name="jones-domitian-37">Jones (1992), p. 37</ref> It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy.<ref name=jones-35>Jones (1992), p. 35</ref>

=== Ceremonial heir (71–81) ===

[[File:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg|thumb|210px|''The Triumph of Titus'', by Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1885), depicting the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71. [[Vespasian]] proceeds at the head of the family, dressed as [[pontifex maximus]], followed by Domitian with [[Domitia Longina]], and finally [[Titus]], also dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair upon which historians have speculated.<ref name=jones-36/> Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Prettejohn | first = Elizabeth | author-link = Elizabeth Prettejohn | title = Lawrence Alma-Tadema and the Modern City of Ancient Rome | journal = The Art Bulletin | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 115–129 |date=March 2002 | doi = 10.2307/3177255 | jstor=3177255}}</ref>]]

Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish.<ref name="Popovic2011">{{cite book|author=Jonathan J. Price|editor=Mladen Popovic|title=The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmCWlYQDrOoC&pg=PA410|year=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-21668-6|pages=410–411|chapter=The Jewish Population of Jerusalem}}</ref><ref name="Bloom2014">{{cite book|author=James J. Bloom|title=The Jewish Revolts Against Rome, A.D. 66–135: A Military Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEOiDBTXya8C&pg=PA247|year=2014|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-6020-5|page=247}}</ref> The city and [[Second Temple|temple of Jerusalem]] were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved.<ref name="josephus-wars-vi-9">Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VI#Chapter 9|VI.9.3]]</ref> For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a [[Roman triumph]]. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war.<ref name=jospehus-war-7-5-5>Josephus, ''The Wars of the Jews'' [[s:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 5|VII.5.5]]</ref> The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent [[White (horse)|white horse]], followed with the remaining Flavian relatives.<ref name="suetonius-domitian-2">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#2 2]</ref>

Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the [[Forum Romanum]], after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the [[Temple of Jupiter (Capitoline Hill)|Temple of Jupiter]].<ref name=jospehus-war-7-5-5/> A [[triumphal arch]], the [[Arch of Titus]], was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum to commemorate the successful end of the war.<ref name=jones-93>Jones (1992), p. 93</ref> Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared [[tribune|tribunician power]] with his father, received seven consulships, the [[Roman censor|censorship]], and was given [[Praetorian prefect|command]] of the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire.<ref name=jones-18>Jones (1992), p. 18</ref> As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as ''Caesar'' or ''[[Princeps]] Iuventutis'', and several priesthoods, including those of ''[[augur]]'', ''[[pontifex]]'', ''[[Arval Brethren|frater arvalis]]'', ''magister frater arvalium'', and ''sacerdos collegiorum omnium'',<ref name=jones-19/> but no office with ''[[imperium]]''. He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship. The other five were less prestigious [[suffect consul]]ships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January.<ref name=jones-18/>

While ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance.<ref name=jones-19>Jones (1992), p. 19</ref> Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Crook | first = John A. | title = Titus and Berenice | journal = The American Journal of Philology | volume = 72 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–175 | year = 1951| doi = 10.2307/292544 | jstor=292544}}</ref> Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of [[democracy]].<ref name=jones-163>Jones (1992), p. 163</ref> Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred when Vespasian died on 24 June 79. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor ''imperium'' of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign.<ref name="jones-20">Jones (1992), p. 20</ref>

Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. In October/November 79, [[79 eruption of Vesuvius|Mount Vesuvius erupted]],<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#22 LXVI.22]</ref> burying the surrounding cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings.<ref name=jones-80>Jones (1992), p. 80</ref> Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the [[Sabine]] territories.<ref name=jones-20/> Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,<ref>Philostratus, ''The Life of Apollonius of Tyana'' [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732 6.32] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165942/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_6_31.html#%A732 |date=3 March 2016 }}</ref> or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead,<ref name="suetonius-domitian-2"/><ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#26 LXVI.26]</ref> even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother.<ref name="dio-romanhistory-lxvi-26"/> It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known [[bias]] of the surviving sources. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.<ref name=jones-20/> Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the [[Castra Praetoria|Praetorian camp]] where he was proclaimed emperor. The following day, 14 September,<ref>This is a date found in the ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=a-9Wf6Yx9LgC&pg=PA64 Acta Fratrum Arvalium]''. The text reads ''XV(...) ob imperium Caes..s divi f... Domitiani Aug...'', where ''XVIII'' is the earliest possible date.</ref> the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'', and the titles of ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' ("venerable"), and ''[[Pater Patriae]]'' ("father of the country").<ref name=jones-21>Jones (1992), p. 21</ref>