Editing Curtiss P-40 Warhawk (section)

==Operational history==
In April 1939, the US Army Air Corps, having witnessed the new, sleek, high-speed, in-line-engined fighters of the European air forces, placed the largest fighter order it had ever made for 524 P-40s.

===French Air Force===
An early order came from the French ''[[French Air Force|Armée de l'Air]]'', which was already operating P-36s. The ''Armée de l'Air'' ordered 100 (later the order was increased to 230) as the '''Hawk 81A-1''' but the French were defeated before the aircraft had left the factory and the aircraft were diverted to British and Commonwealth service (as the Tomahawk I), in some cases complete with metric flight instruments.

In late 1942, as French forces in North Africa split from the [[Vichy France|Vichy government]] to side with the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], US forces transferred P-40Fs from [[33d Operations Group|33rd FG]] to ''GC II/5'', a squadron that was historically associated with the [[Lafayette Escadrille]]. GC II/5 used its P-40Fs and Ls in combat in [[Tunisia]] and later for patrol duty off the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]] until mid-1944, when they were replaced by [[Republic P-47 Thunderbolt|Republic P-47D]] Thunderbolts.

===British Commonwealth===

====Deployment====
[[File:AWM 010926 tomahawk.jpg|thumb|Armourers working on a Tomahawk Mk.II from [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]] in North Africa, 23 December 1941]]

In all, 18 [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) squadrons, four [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] (RCAF), three [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) and two [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations, used P-40s.<ref>[http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftM-T.htm "Aircraft of the RAF (M – T)".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302045415/http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftM-T.htm |date=2 March 2013 }} ''rafweb.org'', 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftE-L.htm rafweb.org, 2007, "Aircraft of the RAF (E – L)".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302045814/http://www.rafweb.org/aircraftE-L.htm |date=2 March 2013 }} ''rafweb.org'', 2007. Retrieved: 6 January 2008.</ref> The first units to convert were [[Hawker Hurricane]] squadrons of the [[Desert Air Force]] (DAF), in early 1941. The first Tomahawks delivered came without armor, bulletproof windscreens or [[self-sealing fuel tank]]s, which were installed in subsequent shipments. Pilots used to British fighters sometimes found it difficult to adapt to the P-40's rear-folding landing gear, which was more prone to collapse than the lateral-folding landing gear of the Hurricane or [[Supermarine Spitfire]]. In contrast to the "three-point landing" commonly employed with British types, P-40 pilots were obliged to use a "wheels landing": a longer, low angle approach that touched down on the main wheels first.

Testing showed the aircraft did not have the performance needed for use in [[North-West Europe|Northwest Europe]] at high-altitude, due to the service ceiling limitation. Spitfires used in the theater operated at heights around {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, while the P-40's Allison engine, with its single-stage, low altitude rated supercharger, worked best at {{convert|15000|ft|m|abbr=on}} or lower. When the Tomahawk was used by Allied units based in the UK from February 1941, this limitation relegated the Tomahawk to low-level reconnaissance with [[RAF Army Cooperation Command]]
and only [[No. 403 Squadron RCAF]] was used in the fighter role for a mere 29 sorties, before being replaced by Spitfires. [[Air Ministry]] deemed the P-40 unsuitable for the theater. UK P-40 squadrons {{clarify|text=from mid-1942 re-equipped with aircraft such as Mustangs|reason=British employment of the Mustang was a complicated evolution of early contracts for P-40 performance-like, Allison-engined NA-73 and NA-83 series Mustangs I and II, similar P-51B series III (both via Lend-Lease and cash-and-carry), then phase-in of licensed Packard-produced Rolls-Royce Merlin-powered later series Mustangs (such as the P-51D), with latter debuts rolling all the way into the winter of 1943-1944|date=February 2017}}

[[File:TR 000978 kittyhawk.jpg|thumb|left|A Kittyhawk Mk III of [[No. 112 Squadron RAF]], [[taxiing]] at [[Medenine]], [[Tunisia]], in 1943. The ground crewman on the wing is directing the pilot, whose forward view is hindered by the aircraft's nose.]]
The Tomahawk was superseded in North Africa by the more powerful Kittyhawk ("D"-mark onwards) types from early 1942, though some Tomahawks remained in service until 1943. Kittyhawks included many improvements and were the DAF's air superiority fighter for the critical first few months of 1942, until "[[Tropics|tropicalised]]" [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s were available. DAF units received nearly 330 Packard V-1650 Merlin-powered P-40Fs, called Kittyhawk IIs, most of which went to the USAAF and the majority of the 700 "lightweight" L models, also powered by the Packard Merlin, in which the armament was reduced to four .50&nbsp;in (12.7&nbsp;mm) Brownings (Kittyhawk IIA). The DAF also received some 21 of the later P-40K and the majority of the 600 P-40Ms built; these were known as Kittyhawk IIIs. The "lightweight" P-40Ns (Kittyhawk IV) arrived from early 1943 and were used mostly as fighter-bombers.{{refn|Late P-40Fs and most Ks, Ls and the P-40Ms had lengthened rear fuselages; the F/Ls had no carburettor air scoop on the upper engine cowling.<ref>Green and Swanborough 1977, pp. 57–59.</ref>|group=N}} From July 1942 until mid-1943, elements of the US [[57th Operations Group|57th Fighter Group]] (57th FG) were attached to DAF P-40 units. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet Union.

====Combat performance====
Tomahawks and Kittyhawks bore the brunt of ''Luftwaffe'' and ''[[Regia Aeronautica]]'' fighter attacks during the [[North African campaign]]. The P-40s were considered superior to the Hurricane, which they replaced as the primary fighter of the Desert Air Force.<ref name="P40Zero"/> 
{{Blockquote|quote=I would evade being shot at accurately by pulling so much [[g-force]]...that you could feel the blood leaving the head and coming down over your eyes... And you would fly like that for as long as you could, knowing that if anyone was trying to get on your tail they were going through the same bleary vision that you had and you might get away... I had deliberately decided that any deficiency the Kittyhawk had was offset by aggression. And I'd done a little bit of boxing – I beat much better opponents simply by going for [them]. And I decided to use that in the air. And it paid off.|source=[[Nicky Barr]], [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|3 Sqn RAAF]]<ref>Hawkins, Belinda. [https://archive.today/20020817101037/http://www.abc.net.au/austory/transcripts/s513633.htm "The Quiet Man".] ''Australian Story'' via ''[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC-TV]]'', 2002. Retrieved: 8 November 2007.</ref>}}

The P-40 initially proved quite effective against Axis aircraft and contributed to a slight shift of advantage in the Allies' favor. The gradual replacement of Hurricanes by the Tomahawks and Kittyhawks led to the ''Luftwaffe'' accelerating retirement of the Bf 109E and introducing the newer Bf 109F; these were to be flown by the veteran pilots of elite ''Luftwaffe'' units, such as [[Jagdgeschwader 27|''Jagdgeschwader'' 27]] (JG27), in North Africa.<ref name="Scutts pp. 12–13"/> The P-40 was generally considered roughly equal or slightly superior to the Bf 109 at low altitude but inferior at high altitude, particularly against the Bf 109F.<ref>Pentland 1974, p. 22.</ref> Most air combat in North Africa took place well below {{cvt|16000|ft}}, negating much of the Bf 109's superiority. The P-40 usually had an advantage over the Bf 109 in turning, dive speed and structural strength, was roughly equal in firepower but was slightly inferior in speed and outclassed in rate of climb and operational ceiling.<ref name="P40Zero"/><ref name="Scutts pp. 12–13">Scutts 1994, pp. 12–13.</ref>

The P-40 was generally superior to early Italian fighter types, such as the [[Fiat G.50 Freccia]] and the [[Macchi C.200]]. Its performance against the [[Macchi C.202|Macchi C.202 ''Folgore'']] elicited varying opinions. Some observers consider the Macchi C.202 superior.<ref name="Gunston p. 226">Gunston 1984, p. 226.</ref> Caldwell, who scored victories against them in his P-40, felt that the ''Folgore'' was superior to the P-40 and the Bf 109 except that its armament of only two or four machine guns was inadequate.<ref>Ethell and Christy 1979, p. 51.</ref> Other observers considered the two equally matched or favored the ''Folgore'' in aerobatic performance, such as turning radius. The aviation historian [[Walter J. Boyne]] wrote that over Africa, the P-40 and the ''Folgore'' were "equivalent".<ref>Boyne 2002, p. 406.</ref><ref>Snedden 1997, p. 51.</ref><ref>Glancey 2006, p. 166.</ref> Against its lack of high-altitude performance, the P-40 was considered to be a stable gun platform and its rugged construction meant that it was able to operate from rough front line airstrips with a good rate of serviceability.<ref>Pentland 1974, pp. 8, 20.</ref>

The earliest victory claims by P-40 pilots include [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] aircraft, during the 1941 [[Syria-Lebanon campaign]], against [[Dewoitine D.520]]s, a type often considered to be the best French fighter of the war.<ref name = "nijbrw"/> The P-40 was deadly against Axis bombers in the theater, as well as against the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110|Bf 110]] twin-engine fighter. In June 1941, Caldwell, of [[No. 250 Squadron RAF|250 Squadron]] in [[Egypt]], flying as [[flying Officer]] (F/O) Jack Hamlyn's wingman, recorded in his log book that he was involved in the first air combat victory for the P-40. This was a [[CANT Z.1007]] bomber on 6 June.<ref name = "nijbrw"/> The claim was not officially recognized, as the crash of the CANT was not witnessed. The first official victory occurred on 8 June, when Hamlyn and [[Flight Sergeant]] (Flt Sgt) Tom Paxton destroyed a CANT Z.1007 from ''211<sup>a</sup> Squadriglia'' of the ''Regia Aeronautica'', over [[Alexandria]].<ref name = "lmnsbs"/> Several days later, the Tomahawk was in action over Syria with [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF]], which claimed 19 aerial victories over Vichy French aircraft during June and July 1941, for the loss of one P-40 (and one lost to ground fire).<ref>Brown 1983, p. 17.</ref>

[[File:P03372.011 kittybomber.jpg|thumb|left|North Africa, {{circa|1943}}. A P-40 "Kittybomber" of [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF]], loaded with six {{convert|250|lb|abbr=on}} bombs.]]
Some DAF units initially failed to use the P-40's strengths or used outdated defensive tactics such as the [[Lufbery circle]]. The superior climb rate of the Bf 109 enabled fast, swooping attacks, neutralizing the advantages offered by conventional defensive tactics. Various new formations were tried by Tomahawk units from 1941 to 1942, including "fluid pairs" (similar to the German ''rotte''); the [[Thach Weave]] (one or two "weavers") at the back of a squadron in formation and whole squadrons bobbing and weaving in loose formations.<ref name="Brown P. 26-29">Brown 1983, pp. 28–29.</ref> [[Werner Schröer]], who was credited with destroying 114 Allied aircraft in only 197 combat missions, referred to the latter formation as "bunches of grapes", because he found them so easy to pick off.<ref name="Brown P. 26-29"/> The leading German ''expert'' in North Africa, [[Hans-Joachim Marseille]], [[Confirmation and overclaiming of aerial victories|claimed]] as many as 101 P-40s during his career.<ref name="wwii_ace_stories_marseille">Ratuszynski, Wilhelm. [http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/aces.htm "Hans-Joachim Marseille: Desert Eagle".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103230105/http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/aces.htm |date=3 November 2014 }} ''World War II Ace Stories''. Retrieved: 8 March 1999.</ref>

From 26 May 1942, Kittyhawk units operated primarily as fighter-bomber units, giving rise to the nickname "Kittybomber".<ref>Brown 1983, pp. 257–258.</ref> As a result of this change in role and because DAF P-40 squadrons were frequently used in bomber escort and close air support missions, they suffered relatively high losses; many Desert Air Force P-40 pilots were caught flying low and slow by marauding Bf 109s.
{| class="wikitable floatright" 
|-
|+Victory claims and losses for three Tomahawk/Kittyhawk<br> squadrons of the [[Desert Air Force]], June 1941 – May 1943.
|-
! scope="col" style="width:200px;"| Unit
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|3 Sqn RAAF]]
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 112 Squadron RAF|112 Sqn RAF]]
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|450 Sqn RAAF]]{{efn|group=vicclaims|Began conversion to P-40s in December 1941; operational in February 1942.<ref>Brown 1983, p. 259.</ref>}}
|-
! scope="row" | Claims with Tomahawks
| 41 || 36 || –
|-
! scope="row" | Claims with Kittyhawks
| 74.5 || 82.5 || 49
|-
! scope="row" | Total P-40 claims
| 115.5 || 118.5 || 49
|-
! scope="row" | P-40 losses (total)
| 34 || 38 || 28
|-
| colspan="5"| {{notelist|group=vicclaims}}
|}
Caldwell believed that [[Operational Conversion Unit|Operational Training Unit]]s did not properly prepare pilots for air combat in the P-40 and as a commander, stressed the importance of training novice pilots properly.<ref>Alexander 2006, pp. 55–56.</ref>

Competent pilots who took advantage of the P-40's strengths were effective against the best of the ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Regia Aeronautica''.<ref name="P40Zero"/><ref name = "P40RAF"/> In August 1941, Caldwell was attacked by two Bf 109s, one of them piloted by German ace [[Werner Schröer]]. Although Caldwell was wounded three times and his Tomahawk was hit by more than 100 {{convert|7.92|mm|in|abbr=on}} bullets and five [[MG 151 cannon|20 mm cannon]] shells, Caldwell shot down Schröer's wingman and returned to base. Some sources also claim that in December 1941, Caldwell killed a prominent German ''Experte'', [[Erbo Graf von Kageneck|Erbo von Kageneck]] (69 kills), while flying a P-40.{{refn|Kageneck's brother, August Graf von Kageneck, who corresponded with Caldwell after the war, was among those who believed that Caldwell shot down Erbo.<ref>Alexander 2006, pp. 224–228.</ref>|group=N}} Caldwell's victories in North Africa included 10 Bf 109s and two Macchi C.202s.<ref name="wwii_ace_stories_caldwell">Dragicevic, George. [http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/caldw/caldw.htm "Clive 'Killer' Caldwell: Stuka Party".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130712021216/http://www.elknet.pl/acestory/caldw/caldw.htm |date=12 July 2013 }} ''elknet.pl'', 17 July 1999. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.</ref> [[Billy Drake]] of 112 Squadron was the leading British P-40 ace with 13 victories.<ref name = "P40RAF"/> [[James Francis Edwards|James "Stocky" Edwards]] (RCAF), who achieved 12 kills in the P-40 in North Africa, shot down German ace Otto Schulz (51 kills) while flying a Kittyhawk with [[No. 260 Squadron RAF]].<ref name = "P40RAF"/> Caldwell, Drake, Edwards and [[Nicky Barr]] were among at least a dozen pilots who achieved ace status twice over while flying the P-40.<ref name="P40RAF">Thomas 2002</ref><ref name="P40CBI">Molesworth 2000</ref> A total of 46 British Commonwealth pilots became aces in P-40s, including seven double aces.<ref name = "P40RAF"/>

===Chinese Air Force===

====Flying Tigers (American Volunteer Group)====
[[File:Hells Angels, Flying Tigers 1942.jpg|thumb|3rd Squadron Hell's Angels, Flying Tigers over China, photographed in 1942 by AVG pilot [[Robert T. Smith]].{{Refn|Smith commented on the challenge of taking this photo while "scanning the surrounding sky every few seconds to make sure no Jap fighters were about to ambush us".<ref>Ford, Daniel. [http://www.warbirdforum.com/rttommis.htm "R.T. Smith's photo of the AVG Tomahawks".] ''warbirdforum.com''. Retrieved: 20 July 2011.</ref>|group=N}}]]
The [[Flying Tigers]], known officially as the 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG), were a unit of the [[Republic of China Air Force|Chinese Air Force]], recruited from amongst US Navy, Marine Corps and Army aviators and ground crew.

AVG leader Claire Chennault received crated Model Bs which his airmen assembled in Burma at the end of 1941, adding self-sealing fuel tanks and a second pair of wing guns, such that the aircraft became a hybrid of B and C models.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zbr_z99E54QC&pg=PA47 |page=47 |title=Claire Chennault: Flying Tiger |last=Rice |first=Earle |date=2003 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=9780791072172}}</ref> These were not well-liked by their pilots: they lacked [[drop tank]]s for extra range, and there were no bomb racks on the wings. Chennault considered the liquid-cooled engine vulnerable in combat because a single bullet through the coolant system would cause the engine to overheat in minutes. The Tomahawks also had no radios, so the AVG improvised by installing a fragile radio transceiver, the RCA-7-H, which had been built for a Piper Cub. Because the plane had a single-stage low-altitude supercharger,<ref>02-5AD-1 V-1710-35 Operating and Flight Instructions dated 1941-10-25</ref> its effective ceiling was about {{convert|25000|ft|m}}. The most critical problem was the lack of spare parts; the only source was from damaged aircraft. The planes were viewed as cast-offs that no one else wanted, dangerous and difficult to fly. But the pilots did appreciate some of the planes' features. There were two heavy sheets of steel behind the pilot's head and back that offered solid protection, and overall the planes were ruggedly constructed.<ref>Schultz, Duane. 1987. ''The Maverick War, Chennault and the Flying Tigers''. St. Martin's Press, 335 pp.</ref>

Compared to opposing Japanese fighters, the P-40B's strengths were that it was sturdy, well-armed, faster in a dive and possessed an excellent rate of roll. While the P-40s could not match the maneuverability of the Japanese Army air arm's [[Nakajima Ki-27]]s and Ki-43s, nor the much more famous Zero naval fighter in slow, turning dogfights, at higher speeds the P-40s were more than a match. Chennault trained his pilots to use the P-40's particular performance advantages.<ref>Rossi, J.R. [http://www.flyingtigersavg.22web.org/tiger1.htm "History: The Flying Tigers - American Volunteer Group - Chinese Air Force".] ''flyingtigersavg.22web.org'', 1998. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.</ref> The P-40 had a higher dive speed than any Japanese fighter aircraft of the early war years, for example, and could exploit so-called "boom-and-zoom" tactics. The AVG was highly successful, and its feats were widely publicized by an active cadre of international journalists to boost sagging public morale at home. According to its official records, in just {{frac|6|1|2}} months, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 enemy aircraft for the loss of just four of its own in air-to-air combat.

In early 1942, the AVG received a small number of Model E's. Each came equipped with a radio, six .50-caliber machine guns, and auxiliary bomb racks that could hold 35-lb fragmentation bombs. Chennault's armorer added bomb racks for 570-lb Russian bombs, which the Chinese had in abundance. These planes were used in the battle of the [[Salween River]] Gorge in late May 1942, which kept the Japanese from entering China from Burma and threatening Kunming. Spare parts, however, remained in short supply. "Scores of new planes...were now in India, and there they stayed—in case the Japanese decided to invade... the AVG was lucky to get a few tires and spark plugs with which to carry on its daily war."<ref>Schultz, Duane. 1987.</ref>
[[File:Vintage-018.jpg|thumb|P-40N Warhawk N1226N, restored in the markings of the American Volunteer Group (AVG). Confederate Air Force air show, Greater Southwest International Airport (AKA Amon Carter Field), Tarrant County, Texas, 1969.]]

====4th Air Group====
China received 27 P-40E models in early 1943. These were assigned to squadrons of the 4th Air Group.<ref>Demin, Anatolii, translated by George M. Mellinger. [http://www.planesandpilotsofww2.totalh.com/ChineseAviationAgainstJapan.html "Changing from 'Donkeys' to 'Mustangs' Chinese Aviation In The War With Japan, 1940–1945".] ''Planes and Pilots of World War Two'', June 2000. Retrieved: 4 November 2011.</ref>

===United States Army Air Forces===
[[File:Aleutian P-40E.jpg|thumb|P-40K 42–10256 in Aleutian "Tiger" markings.]]
[[File:Curtiss P-40B 41-13297 4.jpg|thumb|P-40B G-CDWH at Duxford 2011. It is the only airworthy P-40B in the world and the only survivor from the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor attack]].<ref name="Curtiss P-40B Warhawk - G-CDWH">Donselaar, Remco et al. [http://www.touchdown-aviation.com/flying-legends/plane/fighter-collection-the/curtiss-p-40b-warhawk-g-cdwh.php "Curtiss P-40B Warhawk, 41-13297".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022113221/http://www.touchdown-aviation.com/flying-legends/plane/fighter-collection-the/curtiss-p-40b-warhawk-g-cdwh.php |date=22 October 2018 }} ''Touchdown Aviation'', 2011. Retrieved: 4 November 2011.</ref>]]
[[File:Junichi Sasai with P-40.jpg|thumb|[[Junichi Sasai]] and a captured P-40B in the Dutch East Indies, 1942]]
A total of 15 USAAF pursuit/fighter [[group (air force unit)|group]]s (FG), along with other pursuit/fighter [[squadron (aviation)|squadron]]s and a few [[tactical reconnaissance]] (TR) units, operated the P-40 during 1941–45.<ref name="P40CBI"/><ref name="P40MTO2"/><ref name = "P40PTO"/> As was also the case with the [[Bell P-39 Airacobra]], many USAAF officers considered the P-40 exceptional but it was gradually replaced by the Lockheed P-38 Lightning, the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and the North American P-51 Mustang. The bulk of the fighter operations by the USAAF in 1942–43 were borne by the P-40 and the P-39. In the Pacific, these two fighters, along with the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] [[Grumman F4F Wildcat]], contributed more than any other US types to breaking Japanese air power during this critical period.

====Pacific theaters====

[[File:P-40-flightline-201024.jpg|thumb|By mid-1943, the USAAF was phasing out the P-40F (pictured); the two nearest aircraft, "White 116" and "White 111" were flown by the aces 1Lt Henry E. Matson and 1Lt [[Jack A. Bade|Jack Bade]], 44th FS, at the time part of [[AirSols]], on [[Guadalcanal]]]]
The P-40 was the main USAAF fighter aircraft in the [[South West Pacific theater of World War II|South West Pacific]] and [[Pacific Ocean Area|Pacific Ocean theater]]s during 1941–42. At [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]<ref>Jordan, Corey C. [http://www.planesandpilotsofww2.webs.com/Welch1.html "The Amazing George Welch: Part One - The Tiger of Pearl Harbor".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015214226/http://www.planesandpilotsofww2.webs.com/Welch1.html |date=15 October 2015 }} ''Planes and Pilots of World War Two'', 2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.</ref> and in [[battle of the Philippines (1941–42)|the Philippines]],<ref name="The Dutch East Indies Campaign">Klemen, L. [http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/december2.html "Chronology of the Dutch East Indies, 7 December 1941 – 11 December 1941".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015214226/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/december2.html |date=15 October 2015 }} ''Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942'', 1999–2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.</ref> USAAF P-40 squadrons suffered crippling losses on the ground and in the air to Japanese fighters such as the A6M Zero and Ki-43 Hayabusa respectively. During the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of the USAAF fighters were P-40Bs, the majority of which were destroyed. However, a few P-40s managed to get in the air and shoot down several Japanese aircraft, most notably by [[George Welch (pilot)|George Welch]] and [[Kenneth M. Taylor|Kenneth Taylor]].

In the [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|Dutch East Indies campaign]], the [[17th Fighter Squadron|17th Pursuit Squadron]] (Provisional), formed from USAAF pilots evacuated from the Philippines, claimed 49 Japanese aircraft destroyed, for the loss of 17 P-40s<ref name="P40PTO">Molesworth 2003</ref><ref name="The Dutch East Indies Campaign"/> The seaplane tender [[USS Langley (CV-1)|USS ''Langley'']] was sunk by Japanese airplanes while delivering P-40s to [[Tjilatjap]], [[Java]].<ref>Klemen, L. [http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/USN_losses.html "The United States Warship Losses in the Dutch East Indies".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412133714/http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/USN_losses.html |date=12 April 2021 }} ''Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942'', 1999–2000. Retrieved: 4 August 2011.</ref> In the [[Solomon Islands campaign|Solomon Islands]] and [[New Guinea Campaign]]s and the [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|air defence of Australia]], improved tactics and training allowed the USAAF to better use the strengths of the P-40. Due to aircraft fatigue, scarcity of spare parts and replacement problems, the US [[Fifth Air Force]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]] created a joint P-40 management and replacement pool on 30 July 1942 and many P-40s went back and forth between the air forces.<ref>Birkett, Gordon. [http://www.adf-serials.com/research/Supp2-P40.pdf "USAAF/RAAF P40E/E-1, Operations in Australia Supplementary #2".] ''adf-serials.com'', 2005. Retrieved: 1 August 2007.</ref>

The [[49th Fighter Group]] was in action in the Pacific from the beginning of the war. [[Robert M. DeHaven]] scored 10 kills (of 14 overall) in the P-40 with the 49th FG. He compared the P-40 favorably with the P-38:
:"If you flew wisely, the P-40 was a very capable aircraft. [It] could outturn a P-38, a fact that some pilots didn't realize when they made the transition between the two aircraft. [...] The real problem with it was lack of range. As we pushed the Japanese back, P-40 pilots were slowly left out of the war. So when I moved to P-38s, an excellent aircraft, I did not [believe] that the P-40 was an inferior fighter, but because I knew the P-38 would allow us to reach the enemy. I was a fighter pilot and that was what I was supposed to do."<ref name="Acepilots">[http://www.acepilots.com/usaaf_pto_aces.html#DeHaven "PTO/CBI Pilots of WWII".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060326204955/http://www.acepilots.com/usaaf_pto_aces.html#DeHaven |date=26 March 2006 }} ''Acepilots.com'', 2005. Retrieved: 7 March 2006.</ref>

The 8th, 15th, 18th, 24th, 49th, 343rd and 347th PGs/FGs, flew P-40s in the Pacific theaters between 1941 and 1945, with most units converting to P-38s from 1943 to 1944. In 1945, the 71st Reconnaissance Group employed them as armed [[forward air controllers]] during ground operations in the Philippines, until it received delivery of P-51s.<ref name="P40PTO"/> They claimed 655 aerial victories.

Contrary to conventional wisdom, with sufficient altitude, the P-40 could turn with the A6M and other Japanese fighters, using a combination of a nose-down vertical turn with a bank turn, a technique known as a [[Basic fighter maneuvers#Low Yo-Yo|low yo-yo]]. Robert DeHaven describes how this tactic was used in the 49th Fighter group:
:[Y]ou could fight a Jap on even terms, but you had to make him fight your way. He could outturn you at slow speed. You could outturn him at high speed. When you got into a turning fight with him, you dropped your nose down so you kept your airspeed up, you could outturn him. At low speed he could outroll you because of those big ailerons ... on the Zero. If your speed was up over 275, you could outroll [a Zero]. His big ailerons didn't have the strength to make high speed rolls... You could push things, too. Because ... [i]f you decided to go home, you could go home. He couldn't because you could outrun him. [...] That left you in control of the fight.

====China Burma India Theater====

USAAF and Chinese P-40 pilots performed well in this theater against many Japanese types such as the Ki-43, [[Nakajima Ki-44]] "Tojo" and the Zero. The P-40 remained in use in the [[China Burma India Theater]] (CBI) until 1944 and was reportedly preferred over the P-51 Mustang by some US pilots flying in China. The American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) was integrated into the USAAF as the [[23rd Fighter Group]] in June 1942. The unit continued to fly newer model P-40s until 1944, achieving a high kill-to-loss ratio.<ref name="P40CBI"/><ref>{{cite web |title=23 Fighter Group (ACC) |url=https://www.dafhistory.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/1230891/23-fighter-group-acc/ |website=Air Force Historical Research Agency |access-date=28 September 2023}}</ref>
In the Battle of the Salween River Gorge of May 1942 the AVG used the P-40E model equipped with wing racks that could carry six 35-pound fragmentation bombs and Chennault's armorer developed belly racks to carry Russian 570-pound bombs, which the Chinese had in large quantity.<ref>Schultz, Duane. 1987. The Maverick War, Chennault and the Flying Tigers. St. Martin's Press</ref>

Units arriving in the CBI after the AVG in the 10th and 14th Air Forces continued to perform well with the P-40, [[Confirmation and overclaiming of aerial victories|claiming]] 973 kills in the theater, or 64.8 percent of all enemy aircraft shot down. Aviation historian Carl Molesworth stated that "...the P-40 simply dominated the skies over Burma and China. They were able to establish air superiority over free China, northern Burma and the Assam valley of India in 1942, and they never relinquished it."<ref name="Molesworth 2000, p.6">Moleseworth 2000, page 6</ref> The 3rd, 5th, 23rd, 51st and 80th FGs, along with the 10th TRS, operated the P-40 in the CBI.{{refn|Although part of the US 14th AF, the P-40s of 3rd and 5th FGs of the Chinese American Composite Wing were flown by both American and Chinese pilots.<ref name="P40CBI"/>|group=N}} CBI P-40 pilots used the aircraft very effectively as a fighter-bomber. The [[80th Flying Training Wing|80th Fighter Group]] in particular used its so-called ''B-40'' (P-40s carrying 1,000-pound high-explosive bombs) to destroy bridges and kill bridge repair crews, sometimes demolishing their target with one bomb.<ref>"Playing Large Part in Burma Fighting Against Japs". ''CBI Roundup'', Vol. II, No. 32, 20 April 1944.</ref> At least 40 US pilots reached ace status while flying the P-40 in the CBI.

====Europe and Mediterranean theaters====
[[File:Curtiss P-40 Warhawk USAF.JPG|thumb|Top to bottom: P-40L, P-40F, and P-40K Warhawk]]
On 14 August 1942, the first confirmed victory by a USAAF unit over a German aircraft in World War II was initiated by a P-40C pilot. 2nd Lt Joseph D. Shaffer, of the 33rd Fighter Squadron, intercepted a [[Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor|Focke-Wulf Fw 200]]C-3 maritime patrol aircraft that overflew his base at [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]. Shaffer damaged the Fw 200, which was finished off by a P-38F. Warhawks were used extensively in the [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II]] by USAAF units, including the [[33d Operations Group|33rd]], [[57th Operations Group|57th]], [[58th Operations Group|58th]], [[79th Fighter Group|79th]], [[324th Fighter Group|324th]] and [[325th Operations Group|325th Fighter Group]]s.<ref name="P40MTO2">Molesworth 2002</ref> While the P-40 suffered heavy losses in the MTO, many USAAF P-40 units achieved high kill-to-loss ratios against Axis aircraft; the 324th FG scored better than a 2:1 ratio in the MTO.<ref name=autogenerated1>Higham 2004, pp. 3–4.</ref> In all, 23 US pilots became aces in the MTO on the P-40, most of them during the first half of 1943.<ref name = "P40MTO2"/>
 
P-40 pilots from the 57th FG were the first USAAF fliers to see action in the MTO, while attached to Desert Air Force Kittyhawk squadrons, from July 1942. The 57th was also the main unit involved in the "[[Operation Flax#Palm Sunday Massacre|Palm Sunday Massacre]]", on 18 April 1943. Decoded [[Ultra (World War II intelligence)|Ultra]] signals revealed a plan for a large formation of [[Junkers Ju 52]] transports to cross the Mediterranean, escorted by German and Italian fighters. Between 1630 and 1830 hours, all wings of the group were engaged in an intensive effort against the enemy air transports. Of the four Kittyhawk wings, three had left the patrol area before a convoy of a 100+ enemy transports were sighted by 57th FG, which tallied 74 aircraft destroyed. The group was last in the area, and intercepted the Ju 52s escorted by large numbers of Bf 109s, Bf 110s and [[Macchi C.202]]s. The group claimed 58 Ju 52s, 14 Bf 109s and two Bf 110s destroyed, with several probables and damaged. Between 20 and 40 of the Axis aircraft landed on the beaches around [[Cap Bon]] to avoid being shot down; six Allied fighters were lost, five of them P-40s.

On 22 April, in [[Operation Flax]], a similar force of P-40s attacked a formation of 14 [[Messerschmitt Me 323]] ''Gigant'' ("Giant") six-engine transports, covered by seven Bf 109s from II./JG 27. All the transports were shot down, for a loss of three P-40s. The 57th FG was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills.<ref name="Weal p. 91">Weal 2003, p. 91.</ref> On 23 February 1943, during [[Operation Torch]], the pilots of the 58th FG flew 75 P-40Ls off the aircraft carrier {{USS|Ranger|CV-4|6}} to the newly captured Vichy French airfield, Cazas, near [[Casablanca]], in [[French Morocco]]. The aircraft supplied the 33rd FG and the pilots were reassigned.<ref>USAAF General Orders; USAAF History of the 58th FG. [Sic. These need checking.]</ref>

The 325th FG (known as the "Checkertail Clan") flew P-40s in the MTO and was credited with at least 133 air-to-air kills from April–October 1943, of which 95 were Bf 109s and 26 were Macchi C.202s, for the loss of 17 P-40s in combat.<ref name="P40MTO2"/><ref name="325MTO2">Cathcart, Carol. [http://www.325thfg.org/totalvic.htm "325th Fighter Group: Total Victories by Type of Aircraft".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210183837/http://www.325thfg.org/totalvic.htm |date=10 February 2012 }} '' Official 325th Fighter Group WWII: "Checkertail Clan" Association''. Retrieved: 25 March 2006.</ref> The 325th FG historian Carol Cathcart wrote:

{{blockquote|on 30 July, 20 P-40s of the 317th [Fighter Squadron] ... took off on a fighter sweep ... over [[Sardinia]]. As they turned to fly south over the west part of the island, they were attacked near [[Sassari]]... The attacking force consisted of 25 to 30 Bf 109s and Macchi C.202s... In the brief, intense battle that occurred ... [the 317th claimed] 21 enemy aircraft.|Cathcart<ref name="325MTO317">Cathcart, Carol. [http://www.325thfg.org/317his.htm "History of the 317th Fighter Squadron".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210183840/http://www.325thfg.org/317his.htm |date=10 February 2012 }} ''Official 325th Fighter Group WWII "Checkertail Clan" Association''. Retrieved: 5 September 2006.</ref>}}

Cathcart wrote that Lt. Robert Sederberg assisted a comrade being attacked by five Bf 109s, destroyed at least one German aircraft, and may have shot down as many as five. Sederberg was shot down and became a prisoner of war.<ref name="325MTO317"/>

A famous [[African-American]] unit, the [[Tuskegee Airmen|99th FS]], better known as the "Tuskegee Airmen" or "Redtails", flew P-40s in stateside training and for their initial eight months in the MTO. On 9 June 1943, they became the first African-American fighter pilots to engage enemy aircraft, over [[Pantelleria]], Italy. A single [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190]] was reported damaged by Lieutenant Willie Ashley Jr. On 2 July the squadron claimed its first verified kill; a Fw 190 destroyed by Captain Charles Hall. The 99th continued to score with P-40s until February 1944, when they were assigned P-39s and P-51 Mustangs.<ref>[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1356 "Tuskegee Airmen".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114174554/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1356 |date=14 January 2012 }} ''National Museum of the USAF''. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org/uploads/stats.pdf "The combat record speaks for itself".] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101130173210/http://www.tuskegeeairmen.org/uploads/stats.pdf |date=30 November 2010 }} ''National Museum of the USAF''. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.</ref>

The much-lightened P-40L was most heavily used in the MTO, primarily by US pilots. Many US pilots stripped down their P-40s even further to improve performance, often removing two or more of the wing guns to improve the roll rate.

===Royal Australian Air Force===
[[File:AWM 026647 P-40 Milne.jpg|thumb|P-40E-1 piloted by the ace [[Keith Truscott|Keith "Bluey" Truscott]], commander of [[No. 76 Squadron RAAF]], taxis along [[Marston Matting]] at [[Milne Bay]], [[New Guinea]] in September 1942]]
[[File:P02808.001 P-40 Black Magic.jpg|thumb|P-40N-15 "Black Magic", <br />[[No. 78 Squadron RAAF]] <br />[[Flight Lieutenant|F/L]] Denis Baker scored the RAAF's last aerial victory [[New Guinea campaign|over New Guinea]] in this fighter on 10 June 1944. It was later flown by [[Warrant Officer|W/O]] [[Len Waters]]. Note the dark blue tip on the [[Vertical stabilizer|tailfin]] used to identify [[No. 78 Squadron RAAF|78 Squadron]].]]

The Kittyhawk was the main fighter used by the RAAF in World War II, in greater numbers than the Spitfire. Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|No. 3]] and [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|No. 450 Squadron]]s, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s. Other RAAF pilots served with RAF or SAAF P-40 squadrons in the theater.

Many RAAF pilots achieved high scores in the P-40. At least five reached "double ace" status: [[Clive Caldwell]], [[Nicky Barr]], [[John Lloyd Waddy|John Waddy]], [[Bob Whittle]] (11 kills each) and [[Bobby Gibbes]] (10 kills) in the Middle East, North African and/or [[New Guinea campaign]]s. In all, 18 RAAF pilots became aces while flying P-40s.<ref name="P40RAF"/>

Nicky Barr, like many Australian pilots, considered the P-40 a reliable mount: "The Kittyhawk became, to me, a friend. It was quite capable of getting you out of trouble more often than not. It was a real warhorse."<ref name="Nicky Barr quiet Soldier">Barr, Nicky. [https://archive.today/20020817101037/http://www.abc.net.au/austory/transcripts/s513633.htm "Interview Transcript".] ''ABC Australia''. Retrieved: 8 November 2007.</ref>

At the same time as the heaviest fighting in North Africa, the [[Pacific War]] was also in its early stages, and RAAF units in Australia were completely lacking in suitable fighter aircraft. Spitfire production was being absorbed by the war in Europe; P-38s were trialled, but were difficult to obtain; Mustangs had not yet reached squadrons anywhere, and Australia's tiny and inexperienced aircraft industry was geared towards larger aircraft. USAAF P-40s and their pilots originally intended for the [[United States Far East Air Force|US Far East Air Force]] in the Philippines, but diverted to Australia as a result of Japanese naval activity were the first suitable fighter aircraft to arrive in substantial numbers. By mid-1942, the RAAF was able to obtain some USAAF replacement shipments.

RAAF Kittyhawks played a crucial role in the [[South West Pacific theater of World War II|South West Pacific theater]]. They fought on the front line as fighters during the critical early years of the Pacific War, and the durability and bomb-carrying abilities (1,000&nbsp;lb/454&nbsp;kg) of the P-40 also made it ideal for the ground attack role. During the [[Battle of Port Moresby]] RAAF [[No. 75 Squadron RAAF|75]] destroyed or damaged some 33 Japanese aircraft of various types, with another 30 probables.<ref>44 days, 75 Squadron and the Battle for Australia, Michael Veitch, Hachette Australia; 1st edition (25 July 2017), {{ISBN|978-0733638817}}, pp 15</ref> General [[Henry H. Arnold]] said of No 75 squadron: "Victory in the entire air war against Japan can be traced back to the actions which took place from that dusty strip at Port Moresby in early 1942."<ref>44 days, 75 Squadron and the Battle for Australia, Michael Veitch, Hachette Australia; 1st edition (25 July 2017), {{ISBN|978-0733638817}}, pp 371</ref> For example, [[No. 75 Squadron RAAF|75]], and [[No. 76 Squadron RAAF|76]] Squadrons played a critical role during the [[Battle of Milne Bay]],<ref>[http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/asfaras/milnebay.html "Australia's War 1939–1945".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909034841/http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/asfaras/milnebay.html |date=9 September 2006 }} ''Official Australian Government, Department of Veterans Affairs''. Retrieved: 8 January 2007.</ref><ref>Pentland 1974, pp. 27–39.</ref> fending off Japanese aircraft and providing effective close air support for the Australian infantry, negating the initial Japanese advantage in light tanks and sea power. The Kittyhawks fired "nearly 200,000 rounds of half-inch ammunition" during the course of the battle.<ref>Turning Point: The Battle for Milne Bay 1942 - Japan's first land defeat in World War II, Michael Veitch, Hachette Australia; 1st edition (23 July 2019), {{ISBN|978-0733640551}}, pp 325</ref>

The RAAF units that most used Kittyhawks in the South West Pacific were 75, 76, [[No. 77 Squadron RAAF|77]], [[No. 78 Squadron RAAF|78]], [[No. 80 Squadron RAAF|80]], [[No. 82 Squadron RAAF|82]], [[No. 84 Squadron RAAF|84]] and [[No. 86 Squadron RAAF|86]] Squadrons. These squadrons saw action mostly in the New Guinea and [[Borneo campaign (1945)|Borneo campaigns]].

Late in 1945, RAAF fighter squadrons in the South West Pacific began converting to P-51Ds. However, Kittyhawks were in use with the RAAF until the end of the war, in Borneo. In all, the RAAF acquired 841 Kittyhawks (not counting the British-ordered examples used in North Africa), including 163 P-40E, 42 P-40K, 90 P-40 M and 553 P-40N models.<ref>[http://www.defence.gov.au/RAAF/raafmuseum/research/aircraft/series2/A29.htm RAAF Museum, 2007, "A29 Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawk".] ''defence.gov.au''. Retrieved: 1 August 2007.</ref> In addition, the RAAF ordered 67 Kittyhawks for use by [[No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron]] (a joint Australian-[[Netherlands|Dutch]] unit in the South West Pacific). The P-40 was retired by the RAAF in 1947.

===Royal Canadian Air Force===
[[File:118 Sqn RCAF pilots at Sea Island BC 1943.jpg|thumb|118 Sqn RCAF Kittyhawk pilots take a group picture on [[Sea Island (British Columbia)|Sea Island]] in 1943.]]

A total of 13 [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] units operated the P-40 in the North West European or Alaskan theaters.

In mid-May 1940, Canadian and US officers watched comparative tests of a XP-40 and a Spitfire, at [[Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport|RCAF Uplands]], Ottawa. While the Spitfire was considered to have performed better, it was not available for use in Canada and the P-40 was ordered to meet home air defense requirements. In all, eight Home War Establishment Squadrons were equipped with the Kittyhawk: 72 Kittyhawk I, 12 Kittyhawk Ia, 15 Kittyhawk III and 35 Kittyhawk IV aircraft, for a total of 134 aircraft. These aircraft were mostly diverted from RAF Lend-Lease orders for service in Canada. The P-40 Kittyhawks were obtained in lieu of 144 P-39 Airacobras originally allocated to Canada but reassigned to the RAF.

However, before any home units received the P-40, three RCAF [[Article XV squadron]]s operated Tomahawk aircraft from bases in the United Kingdom. No. 403 Squadron RCAF, a fighter unit, used the Tomahawk Mk II briefly before converting to Spitfires. Two [[Close air support|Army Co-operation]] (close air support) squadrons: 400 and 414 Sqns trained with Tomahawks, before converting to Mustang Mk. I aircraft and a fighter/reconnaissance role. Of these, only No. 400 Squadron used Tomahawks operationally, conducting a number of armed sweeps over France in the late 1941. RCAF pilots also flew Tomahawks or Kittyhawks with other British Commonwealth units based in North Africa, the Mediterranean, South East Asia and (in at least one case) the South West Pacific.{{refn|After being evacuated from Singapore to Australia in 1942, F/L Thomas W. Watson RCAF served for a period with No. 77 Squadron RAAF.|group=N}}

In 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy [[Aleutian Islands Campaign|occupied two islands]], [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]], in the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutians]], off [[Alaska]]. RCAF home defense P-40 squadrons saw combat over the Aleutians, assisting the USAAF. The RCAF initially sent 111 Squadron, flying the Kittyhawk I, to the US base on [[Adak Airport|Adak]] island. During the drawn-out campaign, 12 Canadian Kittyhawks operated on a rotational basis from a new, more advanced base on [[Amchitka]],{{convert|75|mi|km|abbr=on}} southeast of [[Kiska]]. 14 and 111 Sqns took "turn-about" at the base. During a major attack on Japanese positions at Kiska on 25 September 1942, Squadron Leader [[Ken Boomer]] shot down a [[Nakajima A6M2-N]] ("Rufe") seaplane. The RCAF also purchased 12 P-40Ks directly from the USAAF while in the Aleutians. After the Japanese threat diminished, these two RCAF squadrons returned to Canada and eventually transferred to England without their Kittyhawks.

In January 1943, a further Article XV unit, 430 Squadron was formed at [[RAF Hartford Bridge]], England and trained on obsolete Tomahawk IIA.<ref>[http://www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/1w-1e/sqns-escs/page-eng.asp?id=394 Canadian Forces, "430 Squadron – History".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191815/http://www.airforce.forces.gc.ca/1w-1e/sqns-escs/page-eng.asp?id=394 |date=7 August 2011 }} ''airforce.forces.gc''. Retrieved: 3 March 2011.</ref><ref name="Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks of the RCAF">[http://www.rcaf.com/Archives/archivesDetail.php?Curtiss-P-40-Kittyhawks-of-the-RCAF-13 "Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks of the RCAF".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205194746/http://www.rcaf.com/Archives/archivesDetail.php?Curtiss-P-40-Kittyhawks-of-the-RCAF-13 |date=5 December 2017 }} ''rcaf.com'', 2010. Retrieved: 3 March 2011.</ref> The squadron converted to the Mustang I before commencing operations in mid-1943.

In early 1945 pilots from No. 133 Squadron RCAF, operating the P-40N out of [[Victoria International Airport|RCAF Patricia Bay]], (Victoria, British Columbia), intercepted and destroyed two Japanese [[fire balloon|balloon-bombs]],<ref name="Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks of the RCAF"/> which were designed to cause wildfires on the North American mainland. On 21 February, Pilot Officer E. E. Maxwell shot down a balloon, which landed on [[Sumas Mountain]] in Washington State. On 10 March, Pilot Officer J. 0. Patten destroyed a balloon near [[Saltspring Island]], British Columbia. The last interception took place on 20 April 1945 when Pilot Officer P.V. Brodeur from 135 Squadron out of [[Abbotsford, British Columbia]] shot down a balloon over Vedder Mountain.<ref>Coyle 2002, pp. 214–215.</ref>

The RCAF units that operated P-40s were, in order of conversion: 
*[[Article XV squadrons]] serving in the UK under direct command and control of the RAF, with RAF owned aircraft. 
**[[No. 403 Squadron RCAF|403 Squadron]] (Tomahawk IIA and IIB, March 1941) 
**[[No. 400 Squadron RCAF|400 Squadron]] (Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, April 1941 – September 1942) 
**[[No. 414 Squadron RCAF|414 Squadron]] (Tomahawk I, IIA and IIB, August 1941 – September 1942)
**[[No. 430 Squadron RCAF|430 Squadron]] (Tomahawk IIA and IIB, January 1943 – February 1943) 
* Operational Squadrons of the Home War Establishment (HWE) (Based in Canada)
**[[No. 111 Squadron RCAF|111 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I, IV, November 1941 – December 1943 and P-40K, September 1942 – July 1943), 
**[[No. 118 Squadron RCAF|118 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I, November 1941 – October 1943), 
**[[No. 14 Squadron RCAF|14 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I, January 1942 – September 1943), 
**[[No. 132 Squadron RCAF|132 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk IA & III, April 1942 – September 1944), 
**[[No. 130 Squadron RCAF|130 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I, May 1942 – October 1942), 
**[[No. 163 Squadron RCAF|163 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I & III, October 1943 – March 1944), 
**[[No. 133 Squadron RCAF|133 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk I, March 1944 – July 1945) and 
**[[No. 135 Squadron RCAF|135 Squadron]] (Kittyhawk IV, May 1944 – September 1945).

===Royal New Zealand Air Force===
[[File:Fiskencat.jpg|thumb|left|F/O [[Geoffrey Fisken|Geoff Fisken]] in front of his P-40, ''Wairarapa Wildcat'' (''NZ3072/19'')]]
Some [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] (RNZAF) pilots and New Zealanders in other air forces flew British P-40s while serving with DAF squadrons in North Africa and Italy, including the ace [[Jerry Westenra]].

A total of 301 P-40s were allocated to the RNZAF under [[Lend-Lease]], for use in the Pacific Theater, although four of these were lost in transit. The aircraft equipped [[14 Squadron RNZAF|14 Squadron]], [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF|15 Squadron]], [[No. 16 Squadron RNZAF|16 Squadron]], [[No. 17 Squadron RNZAF|17 Squadron]], [[No. 18 Squadron RNZAF|18 Squadron]], [[No. 19 Squadron RNZAF|19 Squadron]] and [[No. 20 Squadron RNZAF|20 Squadron]].

RNZAF P-40 squadrons were successful in air combat against the Japanese between 1942 and 1944. Their pilots claimed 100 aerial victories in P-40s, whilst losing 20 aircraft in combat{{refn|In total, the RNZAF claimed 106 victories in the Pacific: three by [[No. 488 Squadron RNZAF|488(NZ) Sqn]] in [[Singapore]] and [[British Malaya|Malaya]] (all confirmed), three by [[Lockheed Hudson]]s (one confirmed) and the remaining 102 by P-40 pilots. A total of 99 victories were officially confirmed, including 95 by P-40s.|group=N}}<ref name="Chris Rudge 2003">Rudge 2003</ref> [[Geoffrey Fisken|Geoff Fisken]], the highest scoring British Commonwealth ace in the Pacific, flew P-40s with 15 Squadron, although half of his victories were claimed with the [[Brewster Buffalo]].

The overwhelming majority of RNZAF P-40 victories were scored against Japanese fighters, mostly Zeroes. Other victories included [[Aichi D3A]] "Val" dive bombers. The only confirmed twin engine claim, a [[Mitsubishi Ki-21|Ki-21]] "Sally" (misidentified as a [[Mitsubishi G4M|G4M]] "Betty") fell to Fisken in July 1943.<ref name="Chris Rudge 2003"/>

From late 1943 and 1944, RNZAF P-40s were increasingly used against ground targets, including the innovative use of naval depth charges as improvised high-capacity bombs. The last front line RNZAF P-40s were replaced by [[Vought F4U Corsair]]s in 1944. The P-40s were relegated to use as advanced pilot trainers.<ref>Horn 1992</ref><ref>Mossong, Peter. [http://rnzaf.hobbyvista.com/p40_1.html "The Curtiss P-40 in RNZAF Service".] ''Royal New Zealand Air Force Pacific WWII Homepage''. Retrieved: 4 September 2006.</ref><ref>[http://www.nzwarbirds.org.nz/p40a.html "Curtiss P-40N Kittyhawk".] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207124522/http://nzwarbirds.org.nz/p40a.html |date=7 February 2013 }} ''New Zealand Warbirds Family Album''. Retrieved: 4 September 2006.</ref>

The remaining RNZAF P-40s, excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off, were mostly scrapped at [[Hamilton Airport (New Zealand)|Rukuhia]] in 1948.

===Soviet Union===
[[File:Assembly plant in Iran for American fighter warplanes destined for Russia, 1943 (27167675840).jpg|thumb|Assembly of P-40s for Soviet Union, somewhere in Iran, 1943]]
The [[Soviet Air Forces]] and [[Soviet Naval Aviation]] also referred to P-40s as "Tomahawks" and "Kittyhawks". In fact, the Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk / Kittyhawk was the first Allied fighter supplied to the USSR under the Lend-Lease agreement.<ref name="Gordon p. 435">Gordon 2008, p. 435.</ref>
The USSR received 247 P-40B/Cs (equivalent to the Tomahawk IIA/B in RAF service) and 2,178 P-40E, -K, -L, and -N models between 1941 and 1944.<ref name="Romanenko"/> The Tomahawks were shipped from Great Britain and directly from the US, many of them arriving incomplete, lacking machine guns and even the lower half of the engine cowling. In late September 1941, the first 48 P-40s were assembled and checked in the USSR.<ref name="Gordon pp. 436-437">Gordon 2008, pp 436–437.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Alexander |year=2007 |title=British Lend Lease Aid and the Soviet War Effort, June 1941 – June 1942 |jstor= 30052890 |journal=The Journal of Military History |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=773–808 |doi=10.1353/jmh.2007.0206 |s2cid=159715267 }}</ref> Test flights showed some manufacturing defects: generator and oil pump gears and generator shafts failed repeatedly, which led to emergency landings. The test report indicated that the Tomahawk was inferior to Soviet "[[Klimov M-105|M-105P]]-powered production fighters in speed and rate of climb. However, it had good short field performance, horizontal maneuverability, range, and endurance."<ref name="Gordon p. 437">Gordon 2008, p. 437.</ref> Nevertheless, Tomahawks and Kittyhawks were used against the Germans. The [[126th Fighter Aviation Regiment]] (IAP), fighting on the Western and Kalinin Fronts, were the first unit to receive the P-40. The regiment entered action on 12 October 1941. By 15 November 1941, the regiment had shot down 17 German aircraft. However, Lt (SG) Smirnov noted that the P-40 armament was sufficient for strafing enemy lines but rather ineffective in aerial combat. Another pilot, [[Stephan Ridny]] (a [[Hero of the Soviet Union]]), remarked that he had to shoot half the ammunition at 50–100 meters (165–340&nbsp;ft) to shoot down an enemy aircraft.<ref name="Gordon p. 437"/>

[[File:P-40 B Tomahawk NMNA.jpg|thumb|Hawk 81A-3/Tomahawk IIb ''AK255'', at the US [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], is shown in the colors of the Flying Tigers, but never served with them; it began life with the RAF and was later transferred to the Soviet Union]]

In January 1942, some 198 aircraft sorties were flown (334 flying hours) and 11 aerial engagements were conducted, in which five Bf 109s, one Ju 88, and one He 111 were downed. These statistics reveal a surprising fact: it turns out that the Tomahawk was fully capable of successful air combat with a Bf 109. The reports of pilots about the circumstances of the engagements confirm this fact. On 18 January 1942, Lieutenants S. V. Levin and I. P. Levsha (in pair) fought an engagement with seven Bf 109s and shot down two of them without loss. On 22 January, a flight of three aircraft led by Lieutenant E. E. Lozov engaged 13 enemy aircraft and shot down two Bf 109Es, again without loss. Altogether, in January, two Tomahawks were lost; one downed by German anti-aircraft artillery and one lost to Messerschmitts.<ref name="Romanenko"/>

The Soviets stripped down their P-40s significantly for combat, in many cases removing the wing guns altogether in P-40B/C types, for example. Soviet Air Force reports state that they liked the range and fuel capacity of the P-40, which were superior to most of the Soviet fighters, though they still preferred the P-39. Soviet pilot Nikolai G. Golodnikov recalled: "The cockpit was vast and high. At first it felt unpleasant to sit waist-high in glass, as the edge of the fuselage was almost at waist level. But the bullet-proof glass and armored seat were strong and visibility was good. The radio was also good. It was powerful, reliable, but only on HF (high frequency). The American radios did not have hand microphones but throat microphones. These were good throat mikes: small, light and comfortable."<ref name="Drabkin p. 129">Drabkin 2007, p. 129.</ref> The biggest complaint of some Soviet airmen was its poor climb rate and problems with maintenance, especially with burning out the engines. <!-- statement already made; is there need to repeat it?---Tomahawks' Allison engine was regarded as "not very good but powerful as such". When pushed to full RPMs, towards maximum output, it began to "make metal dust".<ref name="Drabkin p. 130">Drabkin 2007, p. 130.</ref>----> VVS pilots usually flew the P-40 at War Emergency Power settings while in combat, which brought acceleration and speed performance closer to that of their German rivals, but could burn out engines in a matter of weeks.<ref name="Romanenko"/> Tires and batteries also failed. The fluid in the engine's radiators often froze, cracking their cores, which made the Allison engine unsuitable for operations during harsh winter conditions. During the winter of 1941, the 126th Fighter Aviation Regiment suffered from cracked radiators on 38 occasions. Often, entire regiments were reduced to a single flyable aircraft because no replacement parts were available.<ref>Mellinger 2006, pp. 24–25</ref> They also had difficulty with the more demanding requirements for fuel and oil quality of the Allison engines. A fair number of burned-out P-40s were re-engined with Soviet [[Klimov M-105]] engines, but these performed relatively poorly and were relegated to rear area use.<ref name="Romanenko"/>

{{Blockquote| quote=Actually, the P-40 could engage all Messerschmitts on equal terms, almost to the end of 1943. If you take into consideration all the characteristics of the P-40, then the Tomahawk was equal to the Bf 109F and the Kittyhawk was slightly better. Its speed and vertical and horizontal manoeuvre were good and fully competitive with enemy aircraft. Acceleration rate was a bit low, but when you got used to the engine, it was OK. We considered the P-40 a decent fighter plane.<ref name= "Drabkin p. 130">Drabkin 2007, p. 130.</ref>
|source=N. G. Golodnikov,<br />2nd Guards Fighter Regiment (GIAP),<br />Northern Aviation Fleet (VVS SF)<ref>Sokhorukov, Andrey, (translation) and James F. Gebhardt. [http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/golodnikov/part1.htm "Conversations with N. G. Golodnikov Part One. I-16 and Hurricane".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404055409/http://lend-lease.airforce.ru/english/articles/golodnikov/part1.htm |date=4 April 2009 }} ''lend-lease.airforce.ru'', 2008. Retrieved: 26 January 2009.</ref>}}

The P-40 saw the most front line use in Soviet hands in 1942 and early 1943. Deliveries over the Alaska-Siberia [[ALSIB]] ferry route began in October 1942. It was used in the northern sectors and played a significant role in the [[Siege of Leningrad|defense of Leningrad]]. The most numerically important types were P-40B/C, P-40E and P-40K/M. By the time the better P-40F and N types became available, production of superior Soviet fighters had increased sufficiently so that the P-40 was replaced in most Soviet Air Force units by the [[Lavochkin La-5]] and various later Yakovlev types. In early 1943, Lt D.I. Koval of the [[45th Fighter Aviation Regiment|45th IAP]] gained ace status on the North Caucasian front, shooting down six German aircraft flying a P-40. Some Soviet P-40 squadrons had good combat records. Some Soviet pilots became aces on the P-40, though not as many as on the P-39 Airacobra, the most numerous Lend-Lease fighter used by the Soviet Union.<ref name="Romanenko"/> However, Soviet commanders thought the Kittyhawk significantly outclassed the Hurricane, although it was "not in the same league as the [[Yakovlev Yak-1|Yak-1]]".<ref name="Drabkin p. 130" /><ref name="Gordon p. 437-438">Gordon 2008, pp. 437–438.</ref>

===Japan===
The [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]] captured some P-40s and later operated a number in [[Myanmar|Burma]]. The Japanese appear to have had as many as 10 flyable P-40Es.<ref>[http://www.j-aircraft.com/captured/capturedby/p40warhawk/captured_p40.htm "Japanese Captured P-40".] ''J-Aircraft.com''. Retrieved: 19 June 2010.</ref> For a brief period in 1943, a few of them were used operationally by 2 ''Hiko Chutai'', 50 ''Hiko Sentai'' (2nd Air Squadron, 50th Air Regiment) in the defense of [[Rangoon]]. Testimony of this is given by [[Yasuhiko Kuroe]], a member of the 64 ''Hiko Sentai''. In his memoirs, he says one Japanese-operated P-40 was shot down in error by a friendly [[Mitsubishi Ki-21]] "Sally" over Rangoon.

===Other nations===
[[File:P-40N (8141412276).jpg|thumb|P-40 Warhawk at Campo Dos Afonsos]]
The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was used by [[Brazil]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]] and [[Turkey]]. The last P-40s in military service, used by the [[Brazilian Air Force]] (FAB), were retired in 1954.

In the air war over Finland, several Soviet P-40s were shot down or had to crash-land due to other reasons. The Finns, short of good aircraft, collected these and managed to repair one P-40M, P-40M-10-CU 43–5925, ''white 23'', which received [[Finnish Air Force]] serial number KH-51 (KH denoting "Kittyhawk", as the British designation of this type was Kittyhawk III). This aircraft was attached to an operational squadron HLeLv 32 of the [[Finnish Air Force]], but lack of spares kept it on the ground, with the exception of a few evaluation flights.

Several P-40Ns were used by the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force]] with [[No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF]] against the Japanese before being used during the [[Indonesian National Revolution|fighting]] in Indonesia until February 1949.<ref>Baugher, Joseph. [http://www.p40warhawk.com/Variants/P-40N.htm "P-40N Warhawk, Kittyhawk IV".] ''p40warhawk.com'', 14 November 2015. Retrieved: 17 April 2016.</ref>