Editing Constantine XI Palaiologos (section)

== Despot of the Morea ==

=== Early rule in the Morea ===
[[File:Peloponnese Middle Ages map-en.svg|left|thumb|Map of the [[Peloponnese]] in the [[Middle Ages]]]]
The transfer of Tocco's conquered Moreot territories to Constantine complicated the Morea's government structure. Since his brother Theodore refused to step down as despot, the despotate became governed by two members of the imperial family for the first time since its creation in 1349. Soon thereafter, the younger Thomas (aged 19) was also appointed as a third Despot of the Morea, which meant that the nominally undivided despotate had effectively disintegrated into three smaller principalities. Theodore did not share control over Mystras with Constantine or Thomas; instead, Theodore granted Constantine lands throughout the Morea, including the northern harbor town of [[Aigio]], fortresses and towns in [[Laconia]] (in the south), and [[Kalamata]] and [[Messenia]] in the west. Constantine made Glarentza, which he was entitled to by marriage, his capital. Meanwhile, Thomas was given lands in the north and based himself in the castle of [[Kalavryta]].{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=9}} During his tenure as despot, Constantine was brave and energetic, but generally cautious.{{Sfn|Nicolle|Haldon|p=191|Turnbull|2007}}
Shortly after being appointed as despots, Constantine and Thomas, together with Theodore, joined forces in an attempt to seize the flourishing and strategically important port of [[Patras]] in the northwest of the Morea, which was ruled by its Catholic Archbishop, {{Interlanguage link|Pandolphe de Malatesta|fr}} (Theodore's brother-in-law). The campaign ended in failure, possibly due to Theodore's reluctant participation and Thomas' inexperience. Constantine confided with Sphrantzes and John at a secret meeting in Mystras that he would make a second attempt to retake Patras by himself; if he failed, he would return to his old appanage by the [[Black Sea]]. Constantine and Sphrantzes, confident that the city's many Greek inhabitants would support their takeover, marched towards Patras on 1 March 1429, and they besieged the city on 20 March. The siege developed into a long and drawn-out engagement, with occasional skirmishes. At one point, Constantine's horse was shot and killed under him and the despot nearly died, being saved by Sphrantzes at the cost of Sphrantzes being captured by the defenders of Patras (though he would be released, albeit in a state of near-death, on 23 April). After almost two months, the defenders opened up to the possibility of negotiation in May. Malatesta journeyed to Italy in an attempt to recruit reinforcements and the defenders agreed that if he did not return to them by the end of the month, Patras would surrender. Constantine agreed to this and withdrew his army. On 1 June, Constantine returned to the city and, since the Archbishop had not returned, met with the city's leaders in the city's [[Cathedral of Saint Andrew, Patras|Cathedral of St. Andrew]] on 4 June and they accepted him as their new lord. The Archbishop's castle, located on a nearby hill, held out against Constantine for another 12 months before surrendering.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=9–11}}
[[File:Patras' castle from up close.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the castle at [[Patras]], captured by Constantine in 1430]]
Constantine's capture of Patras was seen as an affront by the Pope, the Venetians, and the Ottomans. In order to pacify any threats, Constantine sent ambassadors to all three, with Sphrantzes being sent to talk with [[Turahan Bey|Turahan]], the Ottoman governor of [[Thessaly]]. Although Sphrantzes was successful in removing the threat of Turkish reprisal, the threat from the west was realized as the dispossessed Archbishop arrived at the head of a mercenary army of [[Catalans]]. Unfortunately for Malatesta, the Catalans had little interest in helping him recover Patras, and they attacked and seized Glarentza instead, which Constantine had to buy back from them for 6,000 [[Venetian ducat]]s, and began plundering the Moreot coastline. To prevent Glarentza from being seized by pirates, Constantine eventually ordered it to be destroyed.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=11}} During this perilous time, Constantine suffered another loss: Theodora died in November 1429. The grief-stricken Constantine first had her buried at Glarentza, but then moved to Mystras.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=14}} Once the Archbishop's castle surrendered to Constantine in July 1430, the city was fully restored to Byzantine rule after 225 years of foreign occupation. In November, Sphrantzes was rewarded by being proclaimed as the city's governor.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=11}}

By the early 1430s, the efforts of Constantine and his younger brother Thomas had ensured that nearly all of the Peloponnese was under Byzantine rule again since the [[Fourth Crusade]]. Thomas ended the [[Principality of Achaea]] by marrying [[Catherine Zaccaria]], daughter and heir of the final prince, [[Centurione II Zaccaria]]. When Centurione died in 1432, Thomas took control of all his remaining territories by right of marriage. The only lands in the Peloponnese remaining under foreign rule were the few port towns and cities still held by the Republic of Venice. Sultan Murad II felt uneasy about the recent string of Byzantine successes in the Morea. In 1431, Turahan sent his troops south on Murad's orders to demolish the Hexamilion wall in an effort to remind the despots that they were the Sultan's vassals.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=12–13}}

=== Second tenure as regent ===
[[File:Byzantine Constantinople-en.png|thumb|Map of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Constantinople]]|alt=|left]]
In March 1432, Constantine, possibly desiring to be closer to Mystras, made a new territorial agreement (presumably approved by Theodore and John VIII) with Thomas. Thomas agreed to cede his fortress Kalavryta to Constantine, who made it his new capital, in exchange for [[Elis (city)|Elis]], which Thomas made his new capital.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=13}} Relationships between the three despots eventually soured. John VIII had no sons to succeed him and it was thus assumed that his successor would be one of his four surviving brothers (Andronikos having died some time before). John VIII's preferred successor was known to be Constantine and though this choice was accepted by Thomas, who had a good relationship with his older brother, it was resented by Constantine's older brother Theodore. When Constantine was summoned to the capital in 1435, Theodore falsely believed it was to appoint Constantine as co-emperor and designated heir, and he travelled to Constantinople to raise his objections. The quarrel between Constantine and Theodore was not resolved until the end of 1436, when the future Patriarch [[Gregory III of Constantinople|Gregory Mammas]] was sent to reconcile them and prevent civil war. The brothers agreed that Constantine was to return to Constantinople, while Theodore and Thomas would remain in the Morea. John needed Constantine in Constantinople as he was departing for Italy soon. On 24 September 1437, Constantine reached Constantinople. Although he was not proclaimed as co-emperor,{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=14}} his appointment as regent for a second time, suggested to John by their mother Helena, indicated that he was to be regarded as John's intended heir.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=14}}
[[File:Pisanello - Sketches of the Emperor John VIII Palaeologus, a Monk, and a Scabbard, 1438.jpg|thumb|Contemporary sketches by [[Pisanello]] of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] delegation at the [[Council of Florence]]. The figure mounted on the horse is Constantine's brother, Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos]].]]
John left for Italy in November to attend the [[Council of Ferrara]] in an effort to unite the Eastern and Western churches. Although many in the Byzantine Empire opposed a union of the Churches, as it would mean religious submission under the [[Papacy]], John viewed a union as necessary. The papacy did not view the situation of the Christians in the East as something positive, but it would not call for any aid to the disintegrating empire if it did not acknowledge obedience to the Catholic Church and renounce what Catholics perceived as errors. John brought a large delegation to Italy, including Joseph II, the Patriarch of Constantinople; representatives of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Jerusalem; large numbers of bishops, monks, and priests; and his younger brother Demetrios. Demetrios showed opposition against a church union, but John decided not to leave him in the East since Demetrios had shown rebellious tendencies and was thought to try to take the throne with Ottoman support. Constantine was not left without supporting courtiers in Constantinople: Constantine's and John's cousin [[Demetrios Palaiologos Kantakouzenos]] and the experienced statesman [[Loukas Notaras]] were left in the city. Helena and Sphrantzes were also there to advise Constantine.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=14–15}} In 1438, Constantine served as the [[best man]] at Sphrantzes' wedding,{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=14–15}} and would later become the [[Godparent|godfather]] to two of Sphrantzes' children.{{Sfn|Hellebuyck|2006|p=31}}{{better source needed|date=March 2023}}

During John's absence from Constantinople, the Ottomans abided by the previously established peace. Trouble appeared to have brewed only once: in early 1439, Constantine wrote to his brother in Italy to remind the Pope that the Byzantines had been promised two warships by the end of spring. Constantine hoped that the ships would leave Italy within fifteen days, as he believed that Murad II was planning a strong offensive against Constantinople. Although the ships were not sent, Constantinople was not in danger as Murad's campaign focused on taking [[Smederevo]] in Serbia.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=15–16}}

In June 1439, the council in [[Florence]], Italy, declared that the churches had been reunited. John returned to Constantinople on 1 February 1440. Although he was received with a grand ceremony organized by Constantine and Demetrios (who had returned sometime earlier), the news of the unification stirred a wave of resentment and bitterness among the general populace,{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=16}} who felt that John had betrayed their faith and their world view.{{Sfn|Nicol|1967|p=333}} Many feared the union would arouse suspicion among the Ottomans.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=16}} Constantine's agreed with his brother's views on the union: if a sacrifice of the independence of their church resulted in the Westerners organizing a crusade and saving Constantinople, it would not have been in vain.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=16}}

=== Second marriage and Ottoman threats ===
Despite having been relieved of his duties as regent upon John's return, Constantine stayed in the capital for the rest of 1440. He may have stayed in order to find a suitable wife, wishing to remarry since it had been more than ten years since Theodora's death. He decided on [[Caterina Gattilusio]], daughter of [[Dorino I Gattilusio]], the Genoese lord of the island [[Lesbos]]. Sphrantzes was sent to Lesbos in December 1440 to propose and arrange the marriage. In late 1441, Constantine sailed to Lesbos with Sphrantzes and Loukas Notaras, and in August he married Caterina. In September, he left Lesbos, leaving Caterina with her father on Lesbos, to travel to the Morea.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=17–18}}

Upon his return to the Morea, Constantine observed that Theodore and Thomas had ruled well without him. He believed that he could serve the empire's needs better if he was closer to the capital. His younger brother Demetrios governed Constantine's former appanage around Mesembria in Thrace, and Constantine pondered the possibility that he and Demetrios could switch places, with Constantine regaining the Black Sea appanage and Demetrios being granted Constantine's holdings in the Morea. Constantine sent Sphrantzes to propose the idea to both Demetrios and Murad II, who by this point had to be consulted about any appointments.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=18}}

By 1442, Demetrios had no desire for new appointments and was eyeing the imperial throne. He had just made a deal with Murad himself and raised an army, portraying himself as the champion of the Turk-supported cause that opposed the union of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches and declared war on John. When Sphrantzes reached Demetrios to forward Constantine's offer, Demetrios was already preparing to march on Constantinople. The danger he posed to the city was so great that Constantine was summoned from the Morea by John to oversee the city's defenses. In April 1442, Demetrios and the Ottomans began their attack and in July, Constantine left the Morea to relieve his brother in the capital. On the way, Constantine met his wife at Lesbos and together they sailed to [[Lemnos]], where they were stopped by an Ottoman blockade and were trapped for months. Although Venice sent ships to assist them, Caterina fell ill and died in August; she was buried at [[Myrina, Greece|Myrina]] on Lemnos. Constantine did not reach Constantinople until November and by then, the Ottoman attack had already been repelled.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=18–19}} Demetrios' punishment was a brief imprisonment.{{sfn|PLP|loc=21454. Παλαιολόγος ∆ημήτριος}} In March 1443, Sphrantzes was made governor of Selymbria in Constantine's name. From Selymbria, Sphrantzes and Constantine were able to keep a watchful eye on Demetrios' activities. In November, Constantine relinquished control of Selymbria to Theodore, who had abandoned his position as Despot of the Morea, which made Constantine and Thomas the sole Despots of the Morea and gave Constantine Mystras, the despotate's prosperous capital.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=19}}

=== Despot at Mystras ===
[[File:Mystras palace 1.jpg|left|thumb|The Despot's Palace in [[Mystras]], from which Constantine ruled as [[Despot of the Morea]] 1443–1449]]
With Theodore and Demetrios gone, Constantine and Thomas hoped to strengthen the Morea. By this time, the Morea was the cultural center of the Byzantine world and provided a more hopeful atmosphere than Constantinople. Patrons of art and science had settled there at Theodore's invitation and churches, monasteries, and mansions continued to be built. The two Palaiologos brothers hoped to make the Morea into a safe and nearly self-sufficient principality. The philosopher [[Gemistus Pletho]], employed in Constantine's service, said that while Constantinople had once been the New Rome, Mystras and the Morea could become the "New [[Sparta]]", a centralized and strong Hellenic kingdom in its own right.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=21–22}}

One of the projects of the brothers' plan to strengthen the despotate was the reconstruction of the Hexamilion wall, which was destroyed by the Turks in 1431. Together, they completely restored the wall by March 1444. The project impressed many of their subjects and contemporaries, including the Venetian lords in the Peloponnese, who had politely declined to help with its funding. The restoration had cost much in both money and manpower; many of the Moreot landowners had momentarily fled to Venetian lands to avoid financing the venture while others had rebelled before being compelled through military means.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=23–24}} Constantine attempted to attract the loyalty of the Moreot landowners by granting them both further lands and various privileges. He also staged local athletic games, where young Moreots could run races for prizes.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=27}}
[[File:Battle of Varna 1444.PNG|thumb|The [[Crusade of Varna]], sent to aid the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], was crushed by Sultan [[Murad II]] at the [[Battle of Varna]] (pictured) in 1444]]
In the summer of 1444, perhaps encouraged by news from the west that [[Crusade of Varna|a crusade]] had set out from Hungary in 1443, Constantine invaded the Latin [[Duchy of Athens]], his direct northern neighbor and an Ottoman vassal. Through Sphrantzes, Constantine was in contact with Cardinal [[Julian Cesarini]], who along with [[Władysław III of Poland]] and Hungary was one of the leaders of the crusade. Cesarini was made aware of Constantine's intentions and that he was ready to aid the crusade in striking at the Ottomans from the south. Constantine swiftly captured Athens and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], which forced Duke [[Nerio II Acciaioli]] to pay the tribute to him instead of the Ottomans. The recapture of Athens was seen as a particularly glorious feat. One of Constantine's counsellors compared the despot to the legendary ancient Athenian general [[Themistocles]]. Although the crusading army was destroyed by the Ottoman army led by Murad II at the [[Battle of Varna]] on 10 November 1444, Constantine was not deterred. His initial campaign had been remarkably successful and he had also received foreign support from Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy, who had sent him 300 soldiers. With the Burgundian soldiers and his own men, Constantine raided central Greece as far north as the [[Pindus]] mountains in [[Thessaly]], where the locals happily welcomed him as their new lord. As Constantine's campaign progressed, one of his governors, [[Constantine Kantakouzenos]], also made his way north, attacked Thessaly, and seized the town of [[Lidoriki]] from the Ottomans. The townspeople were so excited at their liberation that they renamed the town to Kantakouzinopolis in his honor.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=27–29}}

Tiring of Constantine's successes, Murad II, accompanied by Duke Nerio II of Athens, marched on the Morea in 1446, with an army possibly numbering as many as 60,000 men.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=30}} Despite the overwhelming number of Ottoman troops, Constantine refused to surrender his gains in Greece and instead prepared for battle.{{Sfn|Hellebuyck|2006|p=45}}{{better source needed|date=March 2023}} The Ottomans quickly restored control over Thessaly; Constantine and Thomas rallied at the Hexamilion wall, which the Ottomans reached on 27 November.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=30}} Constantine and Thomas were determined to hold the wall and had brought all their available forces, amounting to perhaps as many as 20,000 men, to defend it.{{Sfn|Runciman|2009|p=76}} Although the wall might have held against the great Ottoman army under normal circumstances, Murad had brought cannons with him and by 10 December, the wall had been reduced to rubble and most of the defenders were either killed or captured; Constantine and Thomas barely escaped the catastrophic defeat. Turahan was sent south to take Mystras and devastate Constantine's lands while Murad II led his forces in the north of the Peloponnese. Although Turahan failed to take Mystras, this was of little consequence as Murad only wanted to instill terror and did not wish to conquer the Morea at the time. The Turks left the peninsula devastated and depopulated. Constantine and Thomas were in no position to ask for a truce and were forced to accept Murad as their lord, pay him tribute, and promise to never again restore the Hexamilion wall.{{Sfn|Nicol|1992|p=|pp=31–33}}