Editing Columbia University (section)

===20th century===
{{See also|Columbia University protests of 1968|Student activism at Columbia University}}
In the 1940s, faculty members, including [[John R. Dunning]], [[Isidor Isaac Rabi|I. I. Rabi]], [[Enrico Fermi]], and [[Polykarp Kusch]], began what became the [[Manhattan Project]], creating the first nuclear fission reactor in the [[Americas]] and researching [[gaseous diffusion]].<ref name="Broad2">{{Cite news|last=Broad|first=William J.|date=October 30, 2007|title=Why They Called It the Manhattan Project|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/science/30manh.html|access-date=October 30, 2007|archive-date=July 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707172414/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/30/science/30manh.html|url-status=live|url-access=limited}}</ref> 

In 1928, [[Seth Low Junior College]] was established by Columbia University in order to mitigate the number of Jewish applicants to Columbia College.<ref name="McCaughey20032" /><ref name="spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu2">{{cite web |title=Seth Low College Added to Columbia |date=3 April 1928 |work=Columbia Spectator |url=http://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/cgi-bin/columbia?a=d&d=cs19280403-01.2.7 |access-date=April 23, 2024 |via=Columbia Spectator Archive |archive-date=April 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424053505/http://spectatorarchive.library.columbia.edu/cgi-bin/columbia?a=d&d=cs19280403-01.2.7 |url-status=live}}</ref> The college was closed in 1936 due to the adverse effects of the [[Great Depression]] and its students were subsequently taught at Morningside Heights, although they did not belong to any college but to the university at large.<ref>Asimov, I. (1979) ''In Memory Yet Green'', Avon Books, pp. 156–157, 159–160, 240</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.columbia-current.org/seth_low_junior_college.html |title=Columbia for Jews? The Untold Story of Seth Low Junior College |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620184233/http://www.columbia-current.org/seth_low_junior_college.html |archive-date=June 20, 2017 |first=Leeza |last=Hirt |work=The Current |date=Fall 2016 |access-date=April 23, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> There was an evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fee, to anyone willing to attend.

In 1947, the program was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the [[School of General Studies]] in response to the return of [[GI (military)|GIs]] after [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.gs.columbia.edu/content/history |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406201539/https://www.gs.columbia.edu/content/history |archive-date=April 6, 2024 |access-date=April 23, 2024 |website=Columbia University School of General Studies}}</ref> In 1995, the School of General Studies was again reorganized as a full-fledged liberal arts college for [[non-traditional students]] (those who have had an academic break of one year or more, or are pursuing dual-degrees) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional undergraduate curriculum.<ref>{{cite web|title=What makes GS different from Columbia's traditional undergraduate colleges?|url=https://gs.columbia.edu/what-makes-gs-different-columbias-traditional-undergraduate-colleges|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053937/https://gs.columbia.edu/what-makes-gs-different-columbias-traditional-undergraduate-colleges|archive-date=November 23, 2016|access-date=November 24, 2016|website=Columbia University School of General Studies}}</ref> The same year, the Division of Special Programs, later called the School of Continuing Education and now the [[Columbia University School of Professional Studies|School of Professional Studies]], was established to reprise the former role of University Extension.<ref>{{cite web|title=University Senate|url=http://senate.columbia.edu/archives/resolutions_archives/resolutions/01-02/CEres.htm|access-date=November 24, 2016|website=Senate.columbia.edu|archive-date=February 13, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213134229/http://senate.columbia.edu/archives/resolutions_archives/resolutions/01-02/CEres.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> While the School of Professional Studies only offered non-degree programs for lifelong learners and high school students in its earliest stages, it now offers degree programs in a diverse range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our History |url=https://sps.columbia.edu/school/our-history|access-date=November 24, 2016|website=Columbia University School of Professional Studies|archive-date=December 27, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227043636/https://sps.columbia.edu/school/our-history|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the aftermath of World War II, the discipline of international relations became a major scholarly focus of the university, and in response, the [[Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs|School of International and Public Affairs]] was founded in 1946, drawing upon the resources of the faculties of political science, economics, and history.<ref>{{cite web |title=Looking Out on a City and a World |url=https://www.columbia.edu/content/university-history |access-date=April 23, 2024 |website=Columbia University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240408163625/https://www.columbia.edu/content/university-history |archive-date=April 8, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Columbia University Bicentennial]] was celebrated in 1954.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 19, 1953 |title=Columbia Removing 116th St. Pavement |work=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1953/08/19/83852003.html?pageNumber=31 |access-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-date=July 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718131025/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1953/08/19/83852003.html?pageNumber=31 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

During the 1960s, student activism reached a climax with [[Columbia University protests of 1968|protests in the spring of 1968]], when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus. The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's president, [[Grayson Kirk]], and the establishment of the University Senate.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kurlansky|first=Mark|url=https://archive.org/details/196800mark/page/194|title=1968: The Year That Rocked The World|publisher=Random House|year=2005|isbn=978-0-345-45582-6|location=New York, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/196800mark/page/194 194–199]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Bradley|first=Stefan|title=Harlem vs. Columbia University: Black Student Power in the Late 1960s|publisher=University of Illinois|year=2009|isbn=978-0-252-03452-7|location=New York, New York|pages=5–19, 164–191}}</ref>

Though several schools in the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fiske |first=Edward B. |date=January 23, 1982 |title=Columbia plans to take women beginning in '83 |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/23/nyregion/columbia-plans-to-take-women-beginning-in-83.html |access-date=April 28, 2023 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=April 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428221812/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/23/nyregion/columbia-plans-to-take-women-beginning-in-83.html |url-status=live }}</ref> after a decade of failed negotiations with [[Barnard College]], the all-female institution affiliated with the university, to merge the two schools.<ref>[http://www.columbiaspectator.com/2009/03/31/reception-honors-anniversary-cc-coeducation Reception honors anniversary of CC coeducation | Columbia Daily Spectator] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115064855/http://www.columbiaspectator.com/2009/03/31/reception-honors-anniversary-cc-coeducation |date=January 15, 2021 }}. Columbiaspectator.com. Retrieved on September 7, 2013.</ref> Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas signed by the [[President of Columbia University|presidents of Columbia University]] and Barnard College.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Partnership with Columbia University |url=https://barnard.edu/boldly-barnard/columbia-university |access-date=April 23, 2024|website=Barnard College |archive-date=August 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190829011912/https://barnard.edu/boldly-barnard/columbia-university |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the late 20th century, the university underwent significant academic, structural, and administrative changes as it developed into a major research university. For much of the 19th century, the university consisted of decentralized and separate faculties specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science. In 1979, these faculties were merged into the [[Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences|Graduate School of Arts and Sciences]].<ref>{{cite web|title=GSAS at a Glance – Columbia University – Graduate School of Arts and Sciences|url=http://gsas.columbia.edu/content/gsas-glance|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310122351/http://gsas.columbia.edu/content/gsas-glance|archive-date=March 10, 2014|access-date=November 24, 2016}}</ref> In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, the School of General Studies, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the [[Columbia University School of the Arts|School of the Arts]], and the [[Columbia University School of Professional Studies|School of Professional Studies]] were merged into the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, leading to the academic integration and centralized governance of these schools.