Editing Columbia River (section)

== Indigenous peoples ==

[[File:Chief Joseph.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Profile of the head and torso of a dignified man of about 60. He wears a headpiece featuring many long white feathers with black tips. His shirt or upper garment is dark, and its sleeves are white. Decorative parallel ovals of white material extend down the front of this garment from neck to midriff.|[[Chief Joseph]] of the [[Nez Perce people]]]]

Humans have inhabited the Columbia's watershed for more than 15,000&nbsp;years, with a transition to a sedentary lifestyle based mainly on salmon starting about 3,500&nbsp;years ago.{{sfn|National Research Council (U.S.)|2004|p=18}} In 1962, archaeologists found evidence of human activity dating back 11,230&nbsp;years at the [[Marmes Rockshelter]], near the confluence of the [[Palouse River|Palouse]] and Snake rivers in eastern Washington. In 1996 the skeletal remains of a 9,000-year-old prehistoric man (dubbed [[Kennewick Man]]) were found near [[Kennewick, Washington]]. The discovery rekindled debate in the scientific community over the origins of human habitation in North America and sparked a protracted controversy over whether the scientific or [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] community was entitled to possess and/or study the remains.<ref>{{cite magazine |title = Who Were The First Americans? |magazine = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher = Time, Inc. |date = March 5, 2006 |first1 = Michael D. |last1 = Lemonick |last2 = Dorfman |first2 = Andrea |last3 = Cray |first3 = Dan |url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1169905,00.html |access-date = April 3, 2008 |url-access=subscription  |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130823143721/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1169905%2C00.html |archive-date = August 23, 2013 |url-status = dead |df = mdy-all }}</ref>

Many different Native Americans and [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] peoples have a historical and continuing presence on the Columbia. South of the Canada–US&nbsp;border, the [[Colville (tribe)|Colville]], [[Spokane (tribe)|Spokane]], [[Coeur d'Alene Tribe|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Yakama]], [[Wanapum]], [[Nez Perce people|Nez Perce]], [[Cayuse people|Cayuse]], [[Palus (tribe)|Palus]], [[Umatilla (tribe)|Umatilla]], [[Cowlitz (tribe)|Cowlitz]], and the [[Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs]] live along the US stretch. Along the upper Snake River and [[Salmon River (Idaho)|Salmon River]], the [[Shoshone]] [[Bannock (tribe)|Bannock]] tribes are present. The [[Sinixt]] or Lakes people lived on the lower stretch of the Canadian portion,{{sfn|Pryce|1999|p=7}} while above that the [[Shuswap people]] (Secwepemc in their own language) reckon the whole of the upper Columbia east to the Rockies as part of their territory.<ref>[http://shuswapwatershed.ca/pdf/Shuswap_the_Name.pdf ''Shuswap: What's in a Name'', Jim Cooperman, in ''A Shuswap Passion'' column for the ''Shuswap Market News'', shuswapwatershed.ca website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221183113/http://shuswapwatershed.ca/pdf/Shuswap_the_Name.pdf |date=December 21, 2013 }} (PDF)</ref> The Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin outlines the traditional homelands of the Canadian Kootenay–[[Ktunaxa]].

The [[Chinookan|Chinook]] tribe, which is not [[federally recognized tribes|federally recognized]], who live near the lower Columbia River, call it ''{{Lang|wac|Wimahl}}'' or ''{{Lang|wac|Wimal}}'' in the [[Upper Chinook language|Upper Chinook (Kiksht) language]],<ref name="HistLinkGray">{{cite encyclopedia |last = Oldham |first = Kit |title = Captain Robert Gray Becomes the First Non-Indian Navigator to Enter the Columbia River, Which He Later Names, on May 11, 1792 |encyclopedia = The Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History |publisher = HistoryLink.org |date = January 13, 2003 |url = http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=5051 |access-date = April 1, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150929041353/http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=5051 |archive-date = September 29, 2015 |url-status = live }}</ref> and it is ''Nch’i-Wàna'' or ''Nchi wana'' to the [[Sahaptin language|Sahaptin (Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit)]]-speaking peoples of its middle course in present-day Washington.{{sfn|Hunn|1990|p=3}} The river is known as ''{{lang|sal|swah'netk'qhu}}'' by the [[Sinixt people]], who live in the area of the Arrow Lakes in the river's upper reaches in Canada.{{sfn|Dove (Quintasket)|1990|pp=100–01}} All three terms essentially mean "the big river".

Oral histories describe the formation and destruction of the [[Bridge of the Gods (geologic event)|Bridge of the Gods]], a land bridge that connected the Oregon and Washington sides of the river in the Columbia River Gorge. The bridge, which aligns with geological records of the Bonneville Slide, was described in some stories as the result of a battle between gods, represented by [[Mount Adams (Washington)|Mount Adams]] and [[Mount Hood]], in their competition for the affection of a goddess, represented by [[Mount St.&nbsp;Helens]].{{sfn|Satterfield|2003|p=82}} Native American stories about the bridge differ in their details but agree in general that the bridge permitted increased interaction between tribes on the north and south sides of the river.{{sfn|Dohnal|2003|pp=12–14}}{{sfn|Clark|2003|pp=20–25}}

Horses, originally acquired from [[Santa Fe de Nuevo México|Spanish New Mexico]], spread widely via native trade networks, reaching the Shoshone of the [[Snake River Plain]] by 1700. The Nez Perce, Cayuse, and [[Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation|Flathead]] people acquired their first horses around 1730.{{sfn|Meinig|1995|pp=23–25, 493, 496}}{{sfn|Boyd|1996|pp=12–13}} Along with horses came aspects of the emerging [[Plains Indian|plains culture]], such as equestrian and [[horse training]] skills, greatly increased mobility, hunting efficiency, trade over long distances, intensified warfare, the linking of wealth and prestige to horses and war, and the rise of large and powerful tribal confederacies. The Nez Perce and Cayuse kept large herds and made annual long-distance trips to the [[Great Plains]] for [[bison]] hunting, adopted the plains culture to a significant degree, and became the main conduit through which horses and the plains culture diffused into the Columbia River region. Other peoples acquired horses and aspects of the plains culture unevenly. The Yakama, Umatilla, Palus, Spokane, and Coeur d'Alene maintained sizable herds of horses and adopted some of the plains cultural characteristics, but fishing and fish-related economies remained important. Less affected groups included the [[Molala people|Molala]], [[Klickitat (tribe)|Klickitat]], [[Wenatchi]], Okanagan, and [[Sinkiuse-Columbia]] peoples, who owned small numbers of horses and adopted few plains culture features. Some groups remained essentially unaffected, such as the [[Sanpoil (tribe)|Sanpoil]] and [[Nespelem (tribe)|Nespelem]] people, whose culture remained centered on fishing.{{sfn|Meinig|1995|pp=23–25, 493, 496}}

Natives of the region encountered foreigners at several times and places during the 18th&nbsp;and 19th&nbsp;centuries. European and American vessels explored the coastal area around the mouth of the river in the late 18th&nbsp;century, trading with local natives. The contact would prove devastating to the indigenous Chinookan speaking peoples; a large portion of their population was wiped out by a [[smallpox]] epidemic. Canadian explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] crossed what is now interior British Columbia in 1793.{{sfn|Boyd|1996|pp=12–13}} From 1805 to 1806, the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] entered the [[Oregon Country]] along the [[Clearwater River (Idaho)|Clearwater]] and Snake rivers, and encountered numerous small settlements of natives. Their records recount tales of hospitable traders who were not above stealing small items from the visitors. They also noted brass teakettles, a British musket, and other artifacts that had been obtained in trade with coastal tribes.{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|p=8}} From the earliest contact with westerners, the natives of the mid- and lower Columbia were not tribal, but instead congregated in social units no larger than a village, and more often at a family level; these units would shift with the season as people moved about, following the salmon catch up and down the river's tributaries.{{sfn|Boyd|1996|pp=4–7}}

Sparked by the 1847 [[Whitman Massacre]], a number of violent battles were fought between American settlers and the region's natives.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Review: Marcus Whitman, Pathfinder and Patriot |author = Myron Eells |volume = 42 |year = 1910 |jstor = 199162 |journal = Bulletin of the American Geographical Society |doi = 10.2307/199162 |issue = 4 |pages = 299  |hdl = 2027/hvd.32044086439460 |hdl-access = free }}</ref> The subsequent wars over Northwest territory, especially the [[Yakima War]], decimated the native population and removed much land from native control.<ref>{{cite web |title = Oregon History: Indian Wars |work = [[Oregon Blue Book]] |url = https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Pages/facts/history/pre-indian.aspx |access-date = September 3, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181024035527/https://sos.oregon.gov/blue-book/Pages/facts/history/pre-indian.aspx |archive-date = October 24, 2018 |url-status = live }}</ref> As years progressed, the right of natives to fish along the Columbia became the central issue of contention with the states, commercial fishers, and private property owners. The US Supreme Court upheld fishing rights in landmark cases in 1905 and 1918,{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|p=14}} as well as the 1974 case ''[[United States v. Washington]]'', commonly called the Boldt Decision.

[[File:Celilo Falls Lee.jpg|thumb|alt=Four men dressed in long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and hats are perched on platforms on both sides of a rushing stream. Three of the men are standing, and one is seated. Each man holds one end of a long pole with a net, dipped in the water, attached to the other end. Several people without poles are watching or waiting nearby.|Dipnet fishing at Celilo Falls, 1941]]

Fish were central to the culture of the region's natives, both as sustenance and as part of their religious beliefs.{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|p=6}} Natives drew fish from the Columbia at several major sites, which also served as trading posts. [[Celilo Falls]], located east of the modern city of The Dalles, was a vital hub for trade and the interaction of different cultural groups,{{sfn|Boyd|1996|pp=4–7}} being used for fishing and trading for 11,000&nbsp;years. Prior to contact with westerners, villages along this {{convert|9|mi|km|adj=on}} stretch may have at times had a population as great as 10,000.{{sfn|Barber|2005|pp=20–21}} The site drew traders from as far away as the Great Plains.<ref>Attributed to anthropologist Philip Drucker in ''Cultures of the North Pacific Coast'' in Netboy's ''The Columbia River Salmon and Steelhead Trout''.</ref>{{sfn|Netboy|1980|p=14}}

The [[Cascades Rapids]] of the Columbia River Gorge, and [[Kettle Falls]] and [[Priest Rapids]] in eastern Washington, were also major fishing and trading sites.<ref>{{cite web |title = Kettle Falls |first = Cassandra |last = Tate |work = HistoryLink.org |url = http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=7577 |date = December 27, 2005 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924050633/http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&File_Id=7577 |archive-date = September 24, 2015 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=OEcascade>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Willingham |first = William F. |title = Cascade Locks |encyclopedia = [[The Oregon Encyclopedia|Oregon Encyclopedia]] |url = http://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/cascade_locks/ |access-date = September 8, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170620234804/http://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/cascade_locks/#.WVZ6w1GQyih |archive-date = June 20, 2017 |url-status = live }}</ref>

In prehistoric times the Columbia's salmon and steelhead runs numbered an estimated annual average of 10 to 16&nbsp;million fish. In comparison, the largest run since 1938 was in 1986, with 3.2&nbsp;million fish entering the Columbia.<ref name=fishruns>{{cite web |title = Columbia River Fish Runs and Fisheries |publisher = Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, and [[Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife]] |date = August 2002 |pages = 2–3, 6, 47, 62 |url = http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/columbia/2000_status_report_text.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060926091324/http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/columbia/2000_status_report_text.pdf |archive-date = September 26, 2006 }}</ref> The annual catch by natives has been estimated at {{convert|42|e6lbs|tonne|abbr=off|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=159, 165}} The most important and productive native fishing site was located at Celilo Falls, which was perhaps the most productive inland fishing site in North America.<ref name=cain>{{cite journal |last = Cain |first = Allen |date = September 2007 |title = Boils Swell & Whorl Pools |journal = [[Oregon Historical Quarterly]] |volume = 108 |issue = 4 |pages = 546–560 |jstor = 20615793}}</ref> The falls were located at the border between Chinookan- and Sahaptian-speaking peoples and served as the center of an extensive trading network across the Pacific Plateau.{{sfn|Ronda|1984|p=170}} Celilo was the oldest continuously inhabited community on the North American continent.{{sfn|Dietrich|1995|p=52}}

Salmon canneries established by white settlers beginning in 1866 had a strong negative impact on the salmon population, and in 1908 US president [[Theodore Roosevelt]] observed that the [[salmon run]]s were but a fraction of what they had been 25&nbsp;years prior.<ref>{{cite web |title = Columbia River History: Commercial Fishing |publisher = Northwest Power and Conservation Council |url = http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/commercialfishing.asp |year = 2010 |access-date = January 26, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130210064923/http://www.nwcouncil.org/history/commercialfishing.asp |archive-date = February 10, 2013 |url-status = live }}</ref>

As river development continued in the 20th&nbsp;century, each of these major fishing sites was flooded by a dam, beginning with Cascades Rapids in 1938. The development was accompanied by extensive negotiations between natives and US government agencies. The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs, a coalition of various tribes, adopted a constitution and incorporated after the 1938 completion of the Bonneville Dam flooded Cascades Rapids;<ref name="OPB-ORstory">{{cite web |title = The Oregon Story |url = http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonstory/tribal_econ/timeline.html |publisher = Oregon Public Broadcasting |year = 2001 |access-date = March 19, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080318041442/http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonstory/tribal_econ/timeline.html |archive-date = March 18, 2008 |url-status = live }}</ref> Still, in the 1930s, there were natives who lived along the river and fished year round, moving along with the fish's migration patterns throughout the seasons.{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|p=5}} The Yakama were slower to do so, organizing a formal government in 1944.{{sfn|Ulrich|2007|p=11}} In the 21st&nbsp;century, the Yakama, Nez Perce, Umatilla, and Warm Springs tribes all have treaty fishing rights along the Columbia and its tributaries.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=159, 165}}

In 1957 Celilo Falls was submerged by the construction of The Dalles Dam, and the native fishing community was displaced.{{sfn|Dietrich|1995|p=52}} The affected tribes received a $26.8&nbsp;million settlement for the loss of Celilo and other fishing sites submerged by The Dalles Dam.{{sfn|Dietrich|1995|p=376}} The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs used part of its $4&nbsp;million settlement to establish the [[Kah-Nee-Ta High Desert Resort and Casino|Kah-Nee-Ta]] resort south of Mount Hood.<ref name="OPB-ORstory" />

In 1977, 75 indigenous fishermen of the Yakama Tribe were arrested in a federal sting operation which claimed that fishermen were poaching up to 40,000 fish in the Columbia River. Fishermen placed on trial received sentences ranging from six months to five years. The federal government pinned Yakama Tribe member David Sohappy ringleader of the operation. After the trial ended, it was determined that the fish were not poached, but driven away because of harmful chemicals present in the power plant. These harmful chemicals mainly consisted of aluminum. This event is commonly known today as the ''Salmon Scam''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schick |first=Tony |date=September 24, 2022 |title=The racism, and resilience, behind today's Pacific Northwest salmon crisis |url=https://www.opb.org/article/2022/09/24/racism-endangered-salmon-federal-policy-northwest-tribes/ |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=opb |language=en}}</ref>

Shortly after the Salmon Scam, many Columbia River-based indigenous tribes received federally recognized status. The Siletz Tribe was the first to restore its federal recognition in 1977, followed by the Cow Creek Band of the Umpqua Tribe in 1982, the Grand Ronde Tribe in 1983, the Lower Umpqua Tribe, Siuslaw Tribe, and Coos Tribe in 1984, the Klamath Tribe in 1986, and the Coquille Tribe in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guggemos |first=Eva |date=February 27, 2024 |title=LibGuides: Indigenous History of Oregon: Timeline |url=https://pacificu.libguides.com/c.php?g=1050460&p=7794169 |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=pacificu.libguides.com |language=en}}</ref> While all the aforementioned tribes received federally recognized status, the Chinook Indian Nation had their federal recognition revoked in 2002 by the Bush administration, and are fighting to have it restored.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reyna |first=Luna |date=2023-02-01 |title=The Chinook Indian Tribe calls for restoration of federal recognition |url=http://prismreports.org/2023/02/01/chinook-indian-tribe-calls-restoration-federal-recognition/ |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=Prism |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2023, members of the Yakama Nation expressed their dismay for the construction of a Goldendale-based pumped hydroelectric energy storage project. Jeremy Takala of the Yakama Nation embodies Yakama belief on the importance of Columbia River crops to food and medicine, stating "the [Goldendale] project being proposed here, it will definitely impact our life".  The Goldendale-pumped hydro storage unit could allow for reused water use in reservoirs, which would be placed on mountainous terrain overlooking the Columbia River. The mountainous terrain where the unit would be placed in is Juniper Point, referred to by the Yakama as Pushpum. Pushpum has rock formations, as well as food and medicine capabilities that are essential to the Yakama. Members of the Yakama tribe wish for consent on the Goldendale project, as opposed to consultation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Kale |date=July 27, 2023 |title=Tribes raise objections to renewable energy project in Columbia River Gorge |url=https://www.kgw.com/article/tech/science/environment/renewable-energy-project-columbia-river-gorge-tribes/283-24fc5c1f-7bdc-4954-9e73-9b91110a568a |access-date=2024-05-02 |website=kgw.com |language=en-US}}</ref>