Editing Cognitive linguistics (section)

===Cognitive Linguistics (linguistics framework)===

One of the approaches to cognitive linguistics is called Cognitive Linguistics, with capital initials, but it is also often spelled cognitive linguistics with all lowercase letters.<ref name="Croft&Cruse_20042">{{cite book |last1=Croft |first1=William |title=Cognitive Linguistics |last2=Cruse |first2=Alan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-511-80386-4}}</ref> This movement saw its beginning in early 1980s when [[George Lakoff]]'s [[Conceptual metaphor|metaphor]] theory was united with [[Ronald Langacker]]'s [[cognitive grammar]], with subsequent models of [[construction grammar]] following from various authors. The union entails two different approaches to [[Evolution of language|linguistic]] and [[cultural evolution]]: that of the conceptual metaphor, and the construction. 

Cognitive Linguistics defines itself in opposition to generative grammar, arguing that language functions in the brain according to general cognitive principles.<ref name="Croft&Cruse_2004">{{cite book |last1=Croft |first1=William|last2=Cruse |first2=Alan|title=Cognitive Linguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-511-80386-4 }}</ref> Lakoff's and Langacker's ideas are applied across sciences. In addition to linguistics and translation theory, Cognitive Linguistics is influential in [[literary studies]],<ref name="Harrison_etal_2014">{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Chloe |last2=Nuttall |first2=Louise |last3=Stockwell |first3=Peter |last4=Yuan |first4=Wenjuan |editor-last1=Harrison |editor-first1=Chloe |editor-last2=Nuttall|editor-first2=Louise|editor-last3=Stockwell |editor-first3=Peter |editor-last4=Yuan |editor-first4=Wenjuan |title=Cognitive Grammar in Literature |publisher=John Benjamins|date=2014 |pages=1–16 |chapter=Introduction |isbn=978-90-272-7056-6 }}</ref> [[education]],<ref name="Corni_etal_2019">{{cite journal |last1=Corni |first1=F |last2=Fuchs |first2=H U |last3=Dumont |first3=E |date=2019 |title=Conceptual metaphor in physics education: roots of analogy, visual metaphors, and a primary physics course for student teachers |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=1286 |issue=GIREP-ICPE-EPEC 2017 Conference 3–7 July 2017 |page=012059 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/1286/1/012059 |bibcode=2019JPhCS1286a2059C |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name="Cerulo_2019">{{cite book |last=Cerulo|first=Karen A.|editor-last1=Brekhus|editor-first1=Wayne H. |editor-last2=Ignatow|editor-first2=Gabe|title=The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Sociology |publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2019 |pages=81–100 |chapter=Embodied cognition: sociologgy's role in bridging mind, brain, and body |url=https://www.academia.edu/25273033 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190273385.013.5|access-date=2020-05-31 }}</ref> [[musicology]],<ref name="Spitzer_2004">{{cite book |last=Spitzer |first=Michael |title=Metaphor and Musical Thought |publisher=University of Chicago Press Press |date=2004 |isbn=0-226-769720 }}</ref> [[computer science]]<ref name="Mondal_2009">{{cite journal |last=Mondal |first=Prakash |date=2009 |title=How language processing constrains (computational) natural language processing: a cognitive perspective |url=https://www.aclweb.org/anthology/Y09-1039.pdf |journal=23rd Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation |pages=365–374 |access-date=2020-05-31}}</ref> and [[theology]].<ref name="Feyaerts&Boeve_2018">{{cite book |last1=Feyaerts |first1=Kurt |last2=Boeve|first2=Lieven |editor-last1=Chilton |editor-first1=Paul |editor-last2=Kopytowska |editor-first2=Monika |title=Religion, Language, and the Human Mind |publisher=Oxford University Press Press |date=2018 |chapter=Religious metaphors at the crossroads between apophatical theology and Cognitive Linguistics: an interdisciplinary study |isbn=978-0-19-063664-7 }}</ref>

====Conceptual metaphor theory====

According to American linguist George Lakoff, ''metaphors'' are not just figures of speech, but modes of thought. Lakoff hypothesises that principles of abstract reasoning may have evolved from visual thinking and mechanisms for representing spatial relations that are present in lower animals.<ref name="Lakoff_1990">{{cite journal |last=Lakoff |first=George |date=1990 |title=Invariance hypothesis: is abstract reasoning based on image-schemas? |journal=Cognitive Linguistics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=39–74 |doi=10.1515/cogl.1990.1.1.39 |s2cid=144380802 }}</ref> Conceptualisation is regarded as being based on the ''[[Embodied cognition|embodiment]]'' of knowledge, building on physical experience of vision and motion. For example, the 'metaphor' of emotion builds on downward motion while the metaphor of reason builds on upward motion, as in saying  “The discussion ''fell'' to the emotional level, but I ''raised it back up'' to the rational plane."<ref name="Lakoff&Johnson_1980">{{cite book |last1=Lakoff|first1=George|last2=Johnson|first2=Mark |title=Metaphors We Live By |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1980|isbn=978-0-226-46801-3}}</ref> It is argued that language does not form an independent cognitive function but fully relies on other [[Cognitive skill|cognitive skills]] which include perception, attention, motor skills, and visual and spatial processing.<ref name="Croft&Cruse_2004" /> Same is said of various other cognitive phenomena such as the [[Time perception|sense of time]]:

::"In our visual systems, we have detectors for motion and detectors for objects/locations. We do not have detectors for time (whatever that could mean). Thus, it makes good biological sense that time should be understood in terms of things and motion." —George Lakoff

In Cognitive Linguistics, [[Thought|thinking]] is argued to be mainly automatic and unconscious.<ref name="Lakoff&Johnson_1999">{{cite book |last1=Lakoff |first1=George |last2=Johnson |first2=Mark |title=Philosophy in the flesh : the embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought |publisher=Basic Books |date=1999 |isbn=0-465-05673-3}}</ref><ref name="Ibarretxe-Antuñano_2002">{{cite journal |last=Ibarretxe-Antuñano |first=Iraide |author-link=Iraide Ibarretxe-Antuñano|date=2002 |title=MIND-AS-BODY as a Cross-linguistic Conceptual Metaphor |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272507067 |journal=Miscelánea |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=93–119|access-date=2020-07-15}}</ref><ref name="Gibbs&Colston_1995">{{cite journal|last1=Gibbs|first1=R. W.|last2=Colston|first2=H.|date=1995|title=The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations|journal=Cognitive Linguistics|volume=6|issue=4|pages=347–378|doi=10.1515/cogl.1995.6.4.347|s2cid=144424435}}</ref> Cognitive linguists study the [[Embodied cognition|embodiment]] of knowledge by seeking expressions which relate to [[Image schema|modal schemas]].<ref name="Luodonpää-Manni&Viimaranta_2017">{{cite book|last1=Luodonpää-Manni|first1=Milla|url=https://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/63854|title=Empirical Approaches to Cognitive Linguistics: Aalyzing Real-Life Data|last2=Penttilä|first2=Esa|last3=Viimaranta|first3=Johanna|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-4438-7325-3|editor-last1=Luodonpää-Manni|editor-first1=Milla|chapter=Introduction|access-date=2020-06-30|editor-last2=Viimaranta|editor-first2=Johanna|archive-date=2020-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023063439/https://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/63854|url-status=dead}}</ref> For example, in the expression "It is quarter to eleven", the preposition ''to'' represents a modal schema which is manifested in language as a visual or sensorimotoric 'metaphor'.

====Cognitive and construction grammar====

''Constructions'', as the basic units of grammar, are conventionalised form–meaning pairings which are comparable to [[memes]] as units of linguistic evolution.<ref name="Dahl_2001">{{cite journal |last=Dahl |first=Östen |date=2001 |title=Grammaticalization and the life cycles of constructions |journal=RASK – Internationalt Tidsskrift for Sprog og Kommunikation |volume=14 |pages=91–134 }}</ref><ref name=Kirby_2013>{{cite book |last=Kirby|first=Simon |chapter=Transitions: The Evolution of Linguistic Replicators |editor-last1=Binder |editor-last2=Smith |year=2013 |title=The Language Phenomenon |series=The Frontiers Collection |publisher=Springer |url=http://www.labex-whoami.fr/images/documents/kirby_Labex_JC_paper.pdf |pages=121–138 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-36086-2_6 |isbn=978-3-642-36085-5 |access-date=2020-03-04}}</ref><ref name=Zehentner_2019>{{cite book |last=Zehentner |first=Eva |year=2019 |title=Competition in Language Change: the Rise of the English Dative Alternation |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-063385-6 }}</ref><ref name="MacWhinney_2015">{{cite book |last=MacWhinney |first=Brian|editor-last1=MacWhinney |editor-first1=Brian |editor-last2=O'Grady |editor-first2=William|title=Handbook of Language Emergence |publisher=Wiley |date=2015 |pages=1–31 |chapter=Introduction – language emergence |isbn=978-1-118-34613-6 }}</ref> These are considered multi-layered. For example, [[idiom|idioms]] are higher-level constructions which contain words as middle-level constructions, and these may contain [[morpheme|morphemes]] as lower-level constructions. It is argued that humans do not only share the same body type, allowing a common ground for embodied representations; but constructions provide common ground for uniform expressions within a speech community.<ref name="Clark_2015">{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Eve |editor-last1=MacWhinney |editor-first1=Brian |editor-last2=O'Grady |editor-first2=William |title=Handbook of Language Emergence |publisher=Wiley |date=2015 |pages=1–31 |chapter=Common ground |isbn=978-1-118-34613-6 }}</ref> Like biological organisms, constructions have [[Biological life cycle|life cycles]] which are studied by linguists.<ref name="Dahl_2001" />

According to the cognitive and ''constructionist'' view, there is no grammar in the traditional sense of the word. What is commonly perceived as grammar is an inventory of constructions; a [[complex adaptive system]];<ref name="Ellis_2011">{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Nick C. |date=2011 |editor-last1=Simpson |editor-first1=James |title=Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics |chapter=The emergence of language as a Complex Adaptive System |pages=666–679 |citeseerx=10.1.1.456.3740 |isbn=978-0-203-83565-4 }}</ref> or a population of constructions.<ref name="Arbib_2008">{{cite book |last=Arbib |first=Michael A. |date=2008 |editor-last1=Arbib |editor-first1=Michael A. |editor-last2=Bickerton |editor-first2=Derek |title=The Emergence of Protolanguage |chapter=Holophrasis and the protolanguage spectrum |pages=666–679 |isbn=978-90-272-8782-3 }}</ref> Constructions are studied in all fields of language research from [[language acquisition]] to [[corpus linguistics]].<ref name="Ellis_2011" />