Editing Civilian (section)

== Civilian protection under international humanitarian law (IHL) ==
[[International humanitarian law]] (IHL) codifies treaties and conventions, signed and enforced by participating states, which serve to protect civilians during intra and interstate conflict. Even for non-treaty participants, it is customary for international law to still apply.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/8F686F64C1565B094925762E0019587D-Full_Report.pdf|title=IHL Primer #1 - What is IHL?|date=July 2009|publisher=International Humanitarian Law Research Initiative|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211160940/https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/8F686F64C1565B094925762E0019587D-Full_Report.pdf|archive-date=2017-12-11|url-status=live|access-date=November 11, 2017}}</ref> Additionally, IHL adheres to the principles of [[Distinction (law)|distinction]], [[Proportionality (law)|proportionality]], and [[Necessity (criminal law)|necessity]]; which apply to the protection of civilians in armed conflict.<ref name=":0" /> Although, despite the UN deploying military forces to protect civilians, it lacks formal policies or military manuals addressing exactly these efforts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Impossible Mandate? Military Preparedness, the Responsibility to Protect and Modern Peace Operations|last1=Holt|first1=Victoria K.|last2=Berkman|first2=Tobias C.|publisher=The Henry L. Stimson Center|year=2006|isbn=9780977002306|pages=9}}</ref> The UN Security Council Report No 4: Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict provides further evidence of the need for protection of civilians. Recognizing that large-scale civilian insecurity threatens international peace and stability, the UN aims to establish the means of protecting civilians and thereby work to ensure regional stability.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bergholm|first=Linnea|date=May 2010|title=The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|journal=Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series|volume=Paper No. 63|pages=14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502164228/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref> Through the UN Security Council Report No 4, first published in 2008, the UN offers ways to support civilian protections in both intra and interstate conflict with a goal of encouraging regional states to police their own conflicts (such as the African Union policing African conflicts).<ref name=":1" /> Similarly, the UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] reminded UN Member states that they have common interests in protecting African civilians through a shared "commitments to human security, and its rationale of indivisibility of peace and security."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergholm|first=Linnea|date=May 2010|title=The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|journal=Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series|volume=Paper No. 63|pages=17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502164228/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>

Through a series of resolutions (1265, 1296, [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1502|1502]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1674|1674]], & 1738) and presidential statements the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] "addresses: 
* compliance with international humanitarian law and relevant human rights law, accountability for violations and humanitarian access;
* the role of UN peacekeeping operations or other UN-mandated missions;
* protection of specific groups;
* the impact of small arms; and
* regional cooperation.
The Security Council is now involved in the protection of civilians in five main areas of action.
* It reinforces general norms—in particular the rules of international humanitarian law.
* It uses its Chapter VII powers to mandate either UN peacekeeping missions or regional organizations or groups of member states to take measures including the use of force to protect civilians.
* It can develop middle ground using its Chapter V, VI and VIII powers to influence parties to conflict in country-specific situations to observe protection norms.
* It uses its Chapter VI powers to try to prevent or limit the outbreak of armed conflict through mediation and other initiatives.
* Finally, the Council can hold parties accountable for violations of international humanitarian law by imposing targeted measures, establishing commissions of inquiry, authorizing ad hoc tribunals or referring situations to the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC)."<ref name=":2" />
In response to presidential statements and previous subcommittee work, the UN Security Council held a meeting in January 2009, specifically to address the protection of civilians within the context of the IHL.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/research-reports/lookup-c-glKWLeMTIsG-b-5556213.php|title=UN Security Council Report No 4: Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict|access-date=November 12, 2017}}</ref> While no specific outcome followed this meeting, it did lead to the production of a 10-year assessment of Council actions since the passing of resolution 1265 in 1999.<ref name=":2" />

In addition to the UN treaties, regional treaties have also been established, such as the African Union Constitutive Act Article 4(h) which also outlines the protection of civilians and  "affords the Union a right to forcibly intervene in one of its member states in "grave circumstances", namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergholm|first=Linnea|date=May 2010|title=The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|journal=Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series|volume=Paper No. 63|pages=8|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502164228/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref> This is proposed to indicate the African Union will no longer stand by to watch atrocities happen within the Union. As described by [[Said Djinnit]] (AU's Commissioner for Peace and Security) in 2004, "Africans cannot [...] watch the tragedies developing in the continent and say it is the UN's responsibility or somebody else's responsibility. We have moved from the concept of non-interference to non-indifference. We cannot, as Africans, remain indifferent to the tragedy of our people"<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.irinnews.org/news/2004/06/28|title=African Union stresses importance of conflict resolution and peacekeeping|date=28 June 2004|work=IRNI News|access-date=November 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210180029/http://www.irinnews.org/news/2004/06/28|archive-date=2017-12-10|url-status=live}}</ref> (IRIN News 2004). Although Article 4(h), while drafted, has not been activated, which raises the question of the AU's willingness to intervene in situations of "grave circumstance."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergholm|first=Linnea|date=May 2010|title=The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|journal=Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series|volume=Paper No. 63|pages=9|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502164228/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>

Regardless of the lead organization (UN, AU, other) "there is clearly a risk involved for international organizations that in assuming a complicated security role such as civilian protection, they may raise expectations among local populations that cannot be met, usually not even by large-scale peace operations with a comprehensive political component, supported by high force levels, overall professionalism, and the political stamina to stay present long-term. The disappointing outcomes, in Africa and elsewhere, have led some to criticize the way in which the decentralization policies have been implemented (MacFarlane and Weiss 1992; Berman 1998; Boulden 2003)."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergholm|first=Linnea|date=May 2010|title=The African Union, the United Nations and Civilian Protection Challenges in Darfur|url=https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|journal=Refugee Studies Centre Working Paper Series|volume=Paper No. 63|pages=11|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502164228/https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/files/files-1/wp63-au-un-civilian-protection-challenges-darfur-2010.pdf|archive-date=2018-05-02}}</ref>