Editing Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (section)

==Reign==
{{main|Empire of Charles V}}
[[File:Dominions House Habsburg abdication Charles V.jpg|thumb|The dominions of the Habsburgs at the time of the abdication of Charles V in 1556]]

===Burgundy and the Low Countries===
[[Image:Paleis op de Koudenberg.jpg|thumb|The [[Palace of Coudenberg]] in [[Brussels]] from a 17th-century portrait before it burnt down in 1731. [[Brussels]] served as the main seat of the imperial court of Charles V in the Low Countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Papadopoulos |first=Alex G. |url=https://archive.org/details/urbanregimesstra0000papa |title=Urban Regimes and Strategies: Building Europe's Central Executive District in Brussels |date=1996 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226645599 |page=[https://archive.org/details/urbanregimesstra0000papa/page/72 72] |quote=Brussels was the imperial capital of Charles V. |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=City Tourism: National Capital Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0FktYIGI-jkC&q=bruxelles+imperial+capital+of+charles+v&pg=PA241 |last1=Maitland |first1=Robert |last2=Ritchie |first2=Brent W. |date=2019 |publisher=CABI |isbn = 978-1845935467|via=Google Books}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2025}}]]

In 1506, Charles inherited his father's Burgundian territories that included [[County of Burgundy|Franche-Comté]] and, most notably, the [[Habsburg Netherlands|Low Countries]]. The latter territories mostly lay within the Holy Roman Empire and its borders, but were formally divided between fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire and [[Kingdom of France|French]] fiefs such as Charles's birthplace of [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], the last remnant of the [[Burgundian State]], a powerful player in the [[Hundred Years' War]]. Since he was a minor, his aunt Margaret of Austria acted as regent, as appointed by Emperor Maximilian until 1515. She soon found herself at war with France over Charles's requirement to pay [[Homage (feudal)|homage]] to the French king for Flanders, as his father had done. The outcome was that France relinquished its ancient claim on Flanders in 1528.

From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands also had to contend with the rebellion of [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|Frisian peasants]] (led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijard Jelckama]]). The rebels were initially successful but after a series of defeats, the remaining leaders were captured and executed in 1523.

Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of [[Tournaisis|Tournai]], [[County of Artois|Artois]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht|Utrecht]], [[Lordship of Groningen|Groningen]], and [[Guelders]]. The [[Seventeen Provinces]] had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were [[fief]]s of either France or the Holy Roman Empire. Charles eventually won the [[Guelders Wars]] and united all provinces under his rule, the last one being the Duchy of Guelders. In 1549, Charles issued a [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1549|Pragmatic Sanction]], declaring the Low Countries to be a unified entity of which his family would be the heirs.<ref name="Kamen">{{Cite book |last=Kamen |first=Henry |url=https://archive.org/details/spain14691714soc00kame |title=Spain, 1469–1714: a society of conflict |publisher=Pearson Education |year=2005 |isbn=0582784646 |edition=3rd |location=Harlow, UK }}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

The Low Countries held an essential place in the Empire. For Charles V, they were his home, the region where he was born and spent his childhood. Because of trade and industry and the wealth of the region's cities, the Low Countries also represented a significant income for the Imperial treasury.

The Burgundian territories were generally loyal to Charles throughout his reign. The important city of Ghent [[Revolt of Ghent (1539)|rebelled]] in 1539 due to heavy tax payments demanded by Charles. The rebellion did not last long, however, as Charles's military response, with reinforcement from [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba]],<ref name=Kamen />{{page needed|date=March 2025}} was swift and humiliating to the rebels of Ghent.<ref name="Gentenaars Stropdragers">{{Cite web |title=Gentenaars Stropdragers |url=http://gilde2.itbull.org/nl/historiek-0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104205756/http://gilde2.itbull.org/nl/historiek-0 |archive-date=4 January 2014 |url-status=usurped |access-date=7 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Gilde van de Stroppendragers |url=http://www.gentschefieste.be/2005/Progr/GStroppen/Stroppen.htm |access-date=7 November 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081311/http://www.gentschefieste.be/2005/Progr/GStroppen/Stroppen.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Spanish kingdoms===
[[File:Toledo Skyline Panorama, Spain - Dec 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] served as the main seat of the Imperial court of Charles V in [[Crown of Castile|Castile]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martínez Gil, Fernando |title=La invención de Toledo. Imágenes históricas de una identidad urbana |publisher=Almud, ediciones de Castilla-La Mancha |year=2007 |isbn=978-8493414078 |pages=113–121 |chapter=Corte renacentista}}</ref><ref name="toledoescorte">{{Cite book |last=Martínez Gil, Fernando |title=Historia de Toledo |publisher=Azacanes |year=1999 |isbn=8488480199 |pages=259–308 |chapter=Toledo es Corte (1480–1561)}}</ref>]]
[[File:Palacio Carlos V west.jpg|thumb|The exterior of the [[Palace of Charles V]] in [[Granada]], which was built upon his wedding to [[Isabella of Portugal]] in 1526.]]

In the Castilian ''Cortes'' of Valladolid in 1506 and of Madrid in 1510, Charles was sworn as the [[Prince of Asturias]], heir-apparent to his mother Queen [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna]].<ref>{{Cite web |title='Cortes de los antiguos reinos de León y de Castilla'; Manuel Colmeiro (1883) |year=1884 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000017.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055350/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000017.htm |archive-date=10 June 2008 |access-date=23 August 2012|last1=Colmeiro |first1=Manuel }},{{cite web|url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000016.htm#I_38_ |title=XXIII |year=1884 |access-date=23 August 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610055346/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000016.htm#I_38_ |archive-date=10 June 2008 |last1=Colmeiro |first1=Manuel }}</ref> On the other hand, in 1502, the [[Cortes of Aragon|Aragonese ''Corts'']] gathered in [[Zaragoza]] and pledged an oath to Joanna as heiress-presumptive, but [[Alonso de Aragón]], Archbishop of Zaragoza, (an illegitimate son of King Ferdinand) expressed firmly that this oath could not establish jurisprudence, that is to say, modify the right of the succession, except by virtue of a formal agreement between the ''Corts'' and the King.<ref>[http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Carlos I fabricada en los Países Bajos (1517); José María de Francisco Olmos] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205100701/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF |date=5 February 2012 }}, ''Revista General de Información y Documentación 2003, vol 13, núm.2 (Universidad complutense de Madrid)'', p. 137</ref><ref>[http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0202220291A.PDF Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Juana la Loca fabricada en los Países Bajos (1505–1506); José María de Francisco Olmos] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114061003/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0202220291A.PDF |date=14 January 2012 }}, ''Revista General de Información y Documentación 2002, vol 12, núm.2 (Universidad complutense de Madrid)'', p. 299</ref> So, upon the death of King Ferdinand II of Aragon, on 23 January 1516, Joanna inherited the [[Crown of Aragon]], which consisted of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]], [[Principality of Catalonia|Catalonia]], [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] and [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)|Sardinia]], while Charles became governor general (regent).<ref>[http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Carlos I fabricada en los Países Bajos (1517); José María de Francisco Olmos] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205100701/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF|date=5 February 2012}}, ''Revista General de Información y Documentación 2003, vol 13, núm.2 (Universidad complutense de Madrid)'' p. 138</ref><ref>[http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Carlos I fabricada en los Países Bajos (1517); José María de Francisco Olmos], p. 138 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205100701/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF |year=5 February 2012 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the Flemish wished Charles to assume the royal title, and this was supported by Emperor Maximilian I and [[Pope Leo X]]. Consequently, after Ferdinand II's funeral on 14 March 1516, Charles I was proclaimed King of Castile and of Aragon jointly with his mother. Finally, the Castilian [[Regent]], Cardinal [[Jiménez de Cisneros]] accepted the ''fait accompli'', and the Castilian and Aragonese ''Cortes'' paid homage to him<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=o7JJAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA51 ''Historia general de España''; Modesto Lafuente (1861)], pp. 51–52.</ref> as King of Aragon jointly with his mother.<ref>[http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/buscarLect/96E2C129300D5FB0C1256E43003ECF79?OpenDocument ''Fueros, observancias y actos de corte del Reino de Aragón''; Santiago Penén y Debesa, Pascual Savall y Dronda, Miguel Clemente (1866)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610081505/http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/buscarLect/96E2C129300D5FB0C1256E43003ECF79?OpenDocument|date=10 June 2008}}, [http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/pw/A94C1361FB8E6926C1256E43003F1FAF/%24file/00000242.jpg p. 64] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610081505/http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/pw/A94C1361FB8E6926C1256E43003F1FAF/%24file/00000242.jpg|date=10 June 2008}}</ref> Finally, when the Castilian [[regent]] Cardinal [[Jiménez de Cisneros]] accepted the ''fait accompli'', he acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king and imposed his instatement throughout the kingdom.<ref>[http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF Estudio documental de la moneda castellana de Carlos I fabricada en los Países Bajos (1517); José María de Francisco Olmos], pp. 139–140 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205100701/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/byd/11321873/articulos/RGID0303220133A.PDF |date=5 February 2012 }}</ref> Charles arrived in his new kingdoms in autumn of 1517. Jiménez de Cisneros came to meet him but fell ill along the way, not without a suspicion of poison, and he died before reaching the King.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Jimenes de Cisneros, Francisco|volume=15|page=416}}</ref>

Due to the irregularity of Charles assuming the royal title while his mother, the legitimate queen, was alive, the negotiations with the Castilian ''Cortes'' in [[Valladolid]] (1518) proved difficult.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cortes de los antiguos reinos de León y de Castilla |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000018.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130224212203/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/95791734217821695203346/p0000018.htm |archive-date=24 February 2013 |access-date=1 June 2016}}; Manuel Colmeiro (1883), chapter XXIV</ref> In the end Charles was accepted under the following conditions: he would learn to speak [[Spanish language|Castilian]]; he would not appoint foreigners; he was prohibited from taking precious metals from Castile beyond the [[Quinto Real]]; and he would respect the rights of his mother, Queen Joanna. The Cortes paid homage to him in Valladolid in February 1518. After this, Charles departed to the Crown of Aragon.<ref name="auto4">[http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/buscarLect/96E2C129300D5FB0C1256E43003ECF79?OpenDocument ''Fueros, observancias y actos de corte del Reino de Aragón''; Santiago Penén y Debesa, Pascual Savall y Dronda, Miguel Clemente (1866)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610081505/http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/buscarLect/96E2C129300D5FB0C1256E43003ECF79?OpenDocument |year=10 June 2008 }}, [http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/pw/A94C1361FB8E6926C1256E43003F1FAF/%24file/00000242.jpg page 64] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610081505/http://saavedrafajardo.um.es/biblioteca/biblio.nsf/pw/A94C1361FB8E6926C1256E43003F1FAF/%24file/00000242.jpg |date=10 June 2008 }}</ref> He managed to overcome the resistance of the Aragonese ''Cortes'' and [[Catalan Courts|Catalan ''Corts'']],<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=o7JJAAAAMAAJ&dq=carlos+rey&pg=PA43 ''Historia general de España''; Modesto Lafuente (1861)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404081925/https://books.google.com/books?id=o7JJAAAAMAAJ&dq=carlos+rey&pg=PA43 |date=4 April 2023 }}, pp. 51–52.</ref> and he was recognized as King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona jointly with his mother, while his mother was kept confined and could only rule in name.<ref name="auto4" /> The [[Kingdom of Navarre]] had been [[Spanish conquest of Navarre|invaded by Ferdinand of Aragon]] jointly with Castile in 1512, but he pledged a formal oath to respect the kingdom. On Charles's accession to the Spanish thrones, the Parliament of Navarre (''Cortes'') required him to attend the coronation ceremony (to become Charles IV of Navarre). Still, this demand fell on deaf ears, and the parliament kept piling up grievances.

Charles was accepted as sovereign, even though the Spanish felt uneasy with the Imperial style. Spanish kingdoms varied in their traditions. Castile had become an authoritarian, highly centralized kingdom, where the monarch's own will easily overrode legislative and justice institutions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Monreal, Gregorio |title=Conquista e Incorporación de Navarra a Castilla |last2=Jimeno, Roldan |publisher=Pamiela |year=2012 |isbn=978-8476817360 |location=Pamplona-Iruña |pages=37–43}}</ref> By contrast, in the Crown of Aragon, and especially in the Pyrenean Kingdom of Navarre, law prevailed, and the monarchy was seen as [[Basque fuero|a contract with the people]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQioAAAAIAAJ&q=navarre%2C+law+prevailed%2C+and+the+monarchy+was+a+contract+with+the+people&pg=RA1-PA104 |title=The Albany Law Journal: A Monthly Record of the Law and the Lawyers |date=1899 |publisher=Weed, Parsons |language=en}}</ref> This became an inconvenience and a matter of dispute for Charles V and later kings since realm-specific traditions limited their absolute power. With Charles, the government became more absolute, even though until his mother died in 1555, Charles did not hold absolute power in the country.

Soon resistance to the Emperor arose because of heavy taxation to support foreign wars in which Castilians had little interest and because Charles tended to select Flemings for high offices in Castile and America, ignoring Castilian candidates. The resistance culminated in the [[Revolt of the Comuneros]], which Charles suppressed. Comuneros released Joanna and wanted to depose Charles and support Joanna to be the sole monarch instead. While Joanna refused to depose her son, her confinement would continue after the revolt to prevent possible events alike. Immediately after crushing the Castilian revolt, Charles was confronted again with the hot issue of Navarre when King [[Henry II of Navarre|Henry II]] attempted to [[Spanish conquest of Navarre#1521 French-Navarrese expedition|reconquer the kingdom]]. Main military operations lasted until 1524, when [[Hondarribia]] surrendered to Charles's forces, but frequent cross-border clashes in the western Pyrenees only stopped in 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and [[Treaty of Cambrai|Cambrai]]).

After these events, Navarre remained a matter of domestic and international litigation still for a century (a French dynastic claim to the throne did not end until the [[July Revolution]] in 1830). Charles wanted his son and heir [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] to marry the heiress of Navarre, [[Jeanne d'Albret]]. Jeanne was instead forced to marry [[William, Duke of Julich-Cleves-Berg]], but that childless marriage was annulled after four years. She next married [[Antoine de Bourbon]], and both she and their son [[Henry of Navarre]] would oppose Philip II in the [[French Wars of Religion]].

After its integration into Charles's empire, Castile guaranteed effective military units and its American possessions provided the bulk of the empire's financial resources. However, the two conflicting strategies of Charles V, enhancing the possessions of his family and protecting Catholicism against Protestant heretics, diverted resources away from building up the Spanish economy. Elite elements in Spain called for more protection for the commercial networks, which were threatened by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Barbary pirates]]. Charles instead focused on defeating Protestantism in Germany and the Netherlands, which proved to be lost causes. Each hastened the economic decline of the Spanish Empire in the next generation.<ref>Aurelio Espinosa, "The grand strategy of Charles V (1500–1558): Castile, war, and dynastic priority in the Mediterranean." ''Journal of Early Modern History'' 9.3 (2005): 239–283. [http://www.academia.edu/download/47577260/GrandStrategy.pdf Online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The enormous budget deficit accumulated during Charles's reign, along with the [[Spanish price revolution|inflation that affected the kingdom]], resulted in declaring bankruptcy during the reign of Philip II.<ref>Elliot, J.H. ''Imperial Spain 1469–1716.'' Penguin Books (New York: 2002), p. 208.</ref>

===Italian states===
[[File:Papa Clemente VII e l'imperatore Carlo V a cavallo soto un baldacchino (8 de agosto de 2018, Museo degli affreschi Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, Verona).jpg|thumb|''[[Pope Clement VII]] and Emperor Charles V on horseback under a canopy'', a 1580 portrait by [[Jacopo Ligozzi]]. It depicts the entry of the Pope and the Emperor into [[Bologna]] in 1530 when Charles was [[Coronation of Charles V|crowned]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by Clement VII.]]

The [[Crown of Aragon]] inherited by Charles included the [[Kingdom of Naples]], the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and the [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)|Kingdom of Sardinia]]. As Holy Roman Emperor, Charles was sovereign in several states of northern Italy as [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|King of Italy]]. The [[Duchy of Milan]], however, was under French control. [[Early Modern France|France]] took Milan from the [[House of Sforza]] after victory against [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Switzerland]] at the [[Battle of Marignano]] in 1515.

Imperial-[[Papal States|Papal]] troops succeeded in re-installing [[Francesco II Sforza]] in Milan in 1521, in the context of an alliance between Charles V and Pope Leo X. A Franco-Swiss army was expelled from Lombardy at the [[Battle of Bicocca]] 1522. In 1524, [[Francis I of France]] retook the initiative, crossing into [[Lombardy]] where Milan, along with several other cities, once again fell to his attack. [[Pavia]] alone held out, and on 24 February 1525 (Charles's twenty-fifth birthday), Charles's forces led by [[Charles de Lannoy]] captured Francis and crushed his army in the [[Battle of Pavia]].

In 1535, Francesco II Sforza died without heirs, and Charles V annexed the territory as a vacant Imperial state with the help of [[Massimiliano Stampa]], one of the most influential courtiers of the late Duke.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Litta|first=Count Pompeo|title=Famous Italian Families, Stampa di Milano}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2025}} Charles successfully held on to all of its Italian territories, though they were invaded again on multiple occasions during the [[Italian Wars]].

In addition, Habsburg trade in the Mediterranean was consistently disrupted by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and its vassal [[Barbary pirates]]. In 1538 a [[Holy League (1538)|Holy League]] consisting of all the Italian states and the Spanish kingdoms was formed to drive the Ottomans back, but it was defeated at the [[Battle of Preveza]]. Decisive naval victory eluded Charles; it would not be achieved until after his death, at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571.

===Holy Roman Empire===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Augusta vendilicorum.png|thumb|A panorama of [[Augsburg]], the main [[Germany|German]] seat of the Imperial court and the location of many of the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]]s presided over by Charles V depicted in a hand-coloured [[woodcut]] from the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]

After the death of his paternal grandfather, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]], in 1519, Charles inherited the [[Habsburg monarchy]]. He was also the natural candidate of the [[Prince-elector|electors]] to succeed his grandfather as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. He defeated the candidacies of [[Frederick III of Saxony]], [[Francis I of France]], and [[Henry VIII of England]] in the [[1519 Imperial election]]. According to some, Charles became emperor due to the fact that by paying huge bribes to the electors, he was the highest bidder. He won the crown on 28 June 1519. On 23 October 1520, he was crowned in Germany and some ten years later, on [[Coronation of Charles V|24 February 1530]], he was crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by [[Pope Clement VII]] in [[Bologna]], the last emperor to receive a [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|papal coronation]].<ref name=NH/><ref>Brinckmeier, Eduard (1882). [https://books.google.com/books?id=w4wBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA311 ''Praktisches Handbuch der historischen Chronologie aller Zeiten und Völker, besonders des Mittelalters'']. p. 311.</ref><ref>Claims that he gained the imperial crown through bribery have been questioned. H.J. Cohn, "Did Bribes Induce the German Electors to Choose Charles V as Emperor in 1519?" ''German History'' (2001) 19#1 pp 1–27</ref> Others point out that while the electors were paid, this was not the reason for the outcome, or at most played only a small part.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cohn |first1=H.J. |title=Did Bribes Induce the German Electors to Choose Charles V as Emperor in 1519? |journal=German History |date=1 January 2001 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1191/026635501672200203}}</ref> The important factor that swayed the final decision was that Frederick refused the offer, and made a speech in support of Charles on the ground that they needed a strong leader against the Ottomans, Charles had the resources and was a prince of German extraction.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holborn |first1=Hajo |title=A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation |year=1982 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691007953 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=350Qosar-UcC&pg=PA47 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Justi |first1=Ferdinand |last2=Stevenson |first2=Sara Yorke |last3=Jastrow |first3=Morris |title=A History of All Nations |date=1905 |publisher=Lea Brothers |page=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnckAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA56 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahan |first1=J. Alexander |title=Maria Theresa of Austria |year= 2011 |publisher=Read Books Ltd |isbn=978-1446545553 |page=59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzJ8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT59 |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beard |first1=Joseph |title=The Administration of Spain Under Charles V, Spain's New Charlemagne |date=2010 |publisher=LAP Lambert Acad. Publ. |isbn=978-3838339641 |pages=20–40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaujcQAACAAJ |access-date=9 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Lucas Cranach - Hofjagd in Torgau zu Ehren Karls V. (1544, Museo del Prado)FXD.jpg|thumb|Hunting scene near [[Torgau]] with Charles V and [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony]], by [[Lucas Cranach the Younger]], 1544]]
Although even at the beginning of his reign, his position was more powerful than that of any of his predecessors, the decentralized structure of the Empire proved resilient, not least because of the [[Reformation]]. It was exactly during this crucial period, Charles V and Ferdinand were too busy with non-German affairs to prevent [[Imperial Cities]] in Upper Germany from becoming estranged from Imperial power.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whaley |first1=Joachim |title=Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648 |date= 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0191617218 |pages=239, 284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgFREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284 |access-date=5 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Due to Charles V's difficulties in coordinating between the Austrian, Hungarian fronts and his Mediterranean fronts in the face of the Ottoman threat, as well as in his German, Burgundian and Italian theatres of war against German Protestant Princes and France, the defense of central Europe,  as well as many responsibilities involving the management of the Empire, was subcontracted to Ferdinand. Charles V abdicated as [[Archduchy of Austria|Archduke of Austria]] in 1522, and nine years after that he had the German princes [[1531 imperial election|elect Ferdinand]] as [[King of the Romans]], who thus became his designated successor as emperor, a move that "had profound implications for state formation in south-eastern Europe". Afterwards, Ferdinand managed to gain control of [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)|Croatia]], and [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], with support from local nobles and his German vassals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Simms |first1=Brendan |title=Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from 1453 to the Present |date=2013 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465065950 |page=1737 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GypWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1737 |access-date=30 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hendrix |first1=Scott H. |title=Recultivating the Vineyard: The Reformation Agendas of Christianization |date=2004 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0664227135 |page=165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W9gDMsRka9sC&pg=PA165 |access-date=5 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=Philip J. |title=Monarchs of the Renaissance: The Lives and Reigns of 42 European Kings and Queens |date= 2014 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0786491032 |page=334 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39hKrtqiDcIC&pg=PA334 |access-date=5 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref>

Charles abdicated as emperor in 1556 in favour of his brother Ferdinand; however, due to lengthy debate and bureaucratic procedure, the Imperial Diet did not accept the abdication (and thus make it legally valid) until 24 February 1558. Up to that date, Charles continued to use the title of emperor.

====Wars with France====
[[File:Truce of Nice 1538.jpg|thumb|[[Francis I of France|Francis I]] and Charles V made peace at the [[Truce of Nice]] in 1538. Francis refused to meet Charles in person, and the treaty was signed in separate rooms.]]
[[File:Elderly Karl V.jpg|thumb|Charles V in the 1550s after [[Titian]]]]

Much of Charles's reign was taken up by conflicts with [[Kingdom of France|France]], which found itself encircled by Charles's empire while it still maintained ambitions in Italy. In 1520, Charles visited [[Kingdom of England|England]], where his aunt, [[Catherine of Aragon]], urged her husband, [[Henry VIII]], to ally himself with the Emperor. In 1508 Charles had been nominated by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] to the [[Order of the Garter]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Collection – The Knights of the Garter under Henry VIII |url=http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/knightsofthegarter/MicroObject.asp?row=21&themeid=455&item=22 |website=royalcollection.org.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202232647/http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/microsites/knightsofthegarter/MicroObject.asp?row=21&themeid=455&item=22 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |access-date=16 December 2015}}</ref> His [[Garter stall plate]] survives in [[Saint George's Chapel]].

The [[Italian War of 1521|first war]] with Charles's great nemesis [[Francis I of France]] began in 1521. Charles allied with England and [[Pope Leo X]] against the French and the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]], and was highly successful, driving the French out of Milan and defeating and capturing Francis at the [[Battle of Pavia]] in 1525.<ref>Angus Konstam, ''Pavia 1525: the climax of the Italian Wars'' (Osprey, 1996).</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2025}} To gain his freedom, Francis ceded [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] to Charles in the [[Treaty of Madrid (1526)|Treaty of Madrid]], as well as renouncing his support of Henry II's claim over [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]].

When he was released, however, Francis had the [[Parlement of Paris]] denounce the treaty because it had been signed under duress. France then joined the [[War of the League of Cognac|League of Cognac]] that [[Pope Clement VII]] had formed with Henry VIII of England, the Venetians, the [[Republic of Florence|Florentines]], and the Milanese to resist imperial domination of Italy. In the ensuing war, Charles's [[sack of Rome (1527)]] and virtual imprisonment of Pope Clement VII in 1527 prevented the Pope from [[Annulment (Catholic Church)|annulling]] the marriage of Henry VIII of England and Charles's aunt Catherine of Aragon, so Henry eventually broke with Rome, thus leading to the [[English Reformation]].<ref name="Holmes1993a">Holmes (1993), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BsV-qSRKAnAC&pg=PA192 p. 192]</ref><ref name="Froude1891a">Froude (1891), [https://books.google.com/books?id=n-Ecc8SnlC0C&pg=PA480 pp. 35, 90–91, 96–97]{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Note: the link goes to p. 480, then click the View All option</ref> In other respects, the war was inconclusive. In the [[Treaty of Cambrai]] (1529), called the "Ladies' Peace" because it was negotiated between Charles's aunt and Francis' mother, Francis renounced his claims in Italy but retained control of Burgundy.

A [[Italian War of 1536–38|third war]] erupted in 1536. Following the death of [[Francesco II Sforza]], Charles installed his son [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]] in the [[Duchy of Milan]], despite Francis' claims on it. This war too was inconclusive. Francis failed to conquer Milan, but he succeeded in conquering most of the lands of Charles's ally, [[Charles III, Duke of Savoy]], including his capital [[Turin]]. A truce at [[Nice]] in 1538 on the basis of ''[[uti possidetis]]'' ended the war but lasted only a short time. [[Italian War of 1542–46|War resumed in 1542]], with Francis now allied with Ottoman Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] and Charles once again allied with Henry VIII. Despite the [[Siege of Nice|conquest of Nice]] by a [[Franco-Ottoman alliance|Franco-Ottoman fleet]], the French could not advance toward Milan, while a joint Anglo-Imperial invasion of northern France, led by Charles himself, won some successes but was ultimately abandoned, leading to another peace and restoration of the ''status quo ante bellum'' in 1544.

A [[Italian War of 1551–1559|final war]] erupted with Francis' son and successor, [[Henry II of France|Henry II]], in 1551. Henry won early success in [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorraine]], where he [[Siege of Metz (1552)|captured Metz]], but French offensives in Italy failed. Charles abdicated midway through this conflict, leaving further conduct of the war to his son, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], and his brother, [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]].

====Conflicts with the Ottoman Empire====
{{Further|Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Habsburg–Ottoman wars in Hungary (1526–1568)|Ottoman wars in Europe|Barbary slave trade}}
[[File:Real Alcázar. Salón de los Tapices. Paño VII. Toma de la Goleta.jpg|thumb|Detail of a tapestry depicting the [[Conquest of Tunis (1535)|conquest of Tunis]] in the Tapestry Room of the [[Alcázar of Seville|Alcázar Palace]] in Seville]]

Charles fought continually with the [[Ottoman Empire]] and its sultan, [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. The defeat of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526 "sent a wave of terror over Europe."<ref>Quoted from: [[Bryan W. Ball]]. ''A Great Expectation''. Brill Publishers, 1975. {{ISBN|9004043152}}. p. 142.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Life Span of Suleiman The Magnificent, 1494–1566 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/larimore02/suleiman.html |last=Sandra Arlinghaus |publisher=Personal.umich.edu |access-date=8 June 2012 |archive-date=21 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121014030/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/larimore02/suleiman.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Muslim advance in Central Europe was halted at the [[Siege of Vienna (1529)]], followed by a counter-attack of Charles V across the [[Danube]] river. However, by 1541, central and southern Hungary [[Ottoman Hungary|fell under Ottoman control]].

Suleiman won the contest for mastery of the Mediterranean, in spite of Christian victories such as the [[Conquest of Tunis (1535)|conquest of Tunis]] in 1535.<ref>Bruce Ware Allen, "Emperor vs. Pirate Tunis, 1535." ''MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History'' (Winter 2014) 26#2 pp 58–63.</ref> The regular Ottoman fleet came to dominate the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] after its victories at [[Battle of Preveza|Preveza]] in 1538 and [[Battle of Djerba|Djerba]] in 1560 (shortly after Charles's death), which severely decimated the [[Spanish Navy]]. At the same time, the Muslim [[Barbary corsairs]], acting under the general authority and supervision of the sultan, regularly devastated the Spanish and Italian coasts and crippled Spanish trade. The advance of the Ottomans in the Mediterranean and central Europe chipped at the foundations of Habsburg power and diminished Imperial prestige.

In 1536, Francis I allied France with Suleiman against Charles. While Francis was persuaded to sign a peace treaty in 1538, he again allied himself with the Ottomans in 1542 in a [[Franco-Ottoman alliance]]. In 1543, Charles allied himself with Henry VIII and forced Francis to sign the [[Peace of Crépy|Truce of Crépy-en-Laonnois]]. Later, in 1547, Charles signed a humiliating<ref name="treaty">In particular, in this [[Truce of Adrianople (1547)]] Charles was only referred to as "King of Spain" instead of by his extensive titulature. (see Crowley, p. 89)</ref> [[Truce of Adrianople (1547)|treaty]] with the Ottomans to gain himself some respite from the huge expenses of their war.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PT423 |title=Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |year=2002 |publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=1576077330 |editor-last=Stanley Sandler}}</ref>{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

Charles V made overtures to the [[Safavid Empire]] to open a second front against the Ottomans, in an attempt at creating a [[Habsburg–Persian alliance]]. Contacts were positive, but rendered difficult by enormous distances. In effect, however, the Safavids did enter in conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)|Ottoman–Safavid War]], forcing it to split its military resources.<ref>"A Habsburg–Persian alliance against the Ottomans finally brought a respite from the Turkish threat in the 1540s. This entanglement kept Suleiman tied down on his eastern border, relieving the pressure on Carlos V" in ''The Indian Ocean in world history?'' Milo Kearney – 2004 – p. 112</ref>

During the 1541 [[Algiers expedition (1541)|expedition of Algiers]], the losses amongst the invading force were heavy with 150 ships lost, plus large numbers of sailors and soldiers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Story of the Barbary Corsairs, by Stanley Lane-Poole. |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm#Page_112 |access-date=18 April 2024 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref> A Turkish [[chronicler]] confirmed that the [[Berbers|Berber tribes]] massacred 12,000 invaders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garcés |first=María Antonia |title=Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive's Tale |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |year=2005 |isbn= 0826514707 |edition=2nd |page=24}}</ref> Leaving war materiel, including 100 to 200 guns which would be recovered to furnish the ramparts of Algiers, Charles' army was taken prisoner in such numbers that the [[Barbary slave trade|markets of Algiers]] were filled with slaves.

====Protestant Reformation====
[[File:Summons for Luther to appear at the Diet of Worms.jpg|thumb|Summons for [[Martin Luther]] to appear at the [[Diet of Worms]] signed by Charles V; the text on the left was on the reverse side.]]
[[File:Archive-ugent-be-79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2 DS-263 (cropped).jpg|thumb|16th-century perception of German soldiers during Charles's reign (1525) portrayed in the manuscript "Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel". Painted by [[Lucas de Heere]] in the second half of the 16th century. Preserved in the [[Ghent University Library]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois [manuscript]|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=31&xywh=-3472,286,12410,6929|access-date=25 August 2020|website=lib.ugent.be|archive-date=29 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029015419/https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=31&xywh=-3472,286,12410,6929|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The issue of the [[Reformation]] was first brought to the imperial attention under Charles V. As [[Holy Roman Emperor]], Charles called [[Martin Luther]] to the [[Diet of Worms]] in 1521, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. After Luther defended the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' and his writings, the Emperor commented: "that monk will never make me a heretic". Charles V relied on religious unity to govern his various realms, otherwise [[Personal union|unified only in his person]], and perceived Luther's teachings as a disruptive form of [[heresy]]. He outlawed Luther and issued the [[Edict of Worms]], declaring:

{{blockquote|You know that I am a descendant of the Most Christian Emperors of the great German people, of the Catholic Kings of Spain, of the Archdukes of Austria, and of the Dukes of Burgundy. All of these, their whole life long, were faithful sons of the Roman Church&nbsp;... After their deaths they left, by natural law and heritage, these holy catholic rites, for us to live and die by, following their example. And so until now I have lived as a true follower of these our ancestors. I am therefore resolved to maintain everything which these my forebears have established to the present.}}

Charles V, however, kept his word, and left Martin Luther free to leave the city. [[Frederick III, Elector of Saxony]] and protector of Luther, lamented the outcome of the Diet. On the road back from Worms, Luther was kidnapped by Frederick's men and hidden in a distant castle in [[Wartburg]]. There, he began to work on his [[Luther Bible|German translation of the bible]]. The spread of [[Lutheranism]] led to two major revolts: that of the knights in 1522–1523 and that of the peasants led by [[Thomas Muntzer]] in 1524–1525. While the pro-Imperial [[Swabian League]], in conjunction with Protestant princes afraid of social revolts, restored order, Charles V used the instrument of pardon to maintain peace. Conflict with the pope led Charles' agents to remind the pope of the bad position that the Protestants were putting the Vatican in.<ref>Parker, ''Emperor'', 245–246</ref>
[[File:Andreas Nunzer Übergabe der Augsburger Konfession 1530.jpg|thumb|Charles V receives the [[Augsburg Confession]] at the [[Diet of Augsburg]] on 25 June 1530]]
Following this, Charles V took a tolerant approach and pursued a policy of reconciliation with the Lutherans. The 1530 Imperial [[Diet of Augsburg]] was requested by Emperor Charles V to decide on three issues: first, the defence of the Empire against the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars in Hungary (1526–1568)|Ottoman]] threat; second, issues related to policy, currency and public well-being; and, third, disagreements about Christianity, in attempt to reach some compromise and a chance to deal with the German situation.<ref>Gottfried G. Krodel, "Law, Order, and the Almighty Taler: The Empire in Action at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg." ''Sixteenth Century Journal'' (1982): 75–106 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2540054 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407025412/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2540054 |date=7 April 2022 }}.</ref> The Diet was inaugurated by the emperor on 20 June. It produced numerous outcomes, most notably the 1530 declaration of the Lutheran estates known as the [[Augsburg Confession]] (''Confessio Augustana''), a central document of Lutheranism. Luther's assistant [[Philip Melanchthon]] went even further and presented it to Charles V. The Emperor strongly rejected it, and in 1531 the [[Schmalkaldic League]] was formed by Protestant princes. In 1532, Charles V recognized the League and effectively suspended the Edict of Worms with the ''standstill of [[Nuremberg]]''. The ''standstill'' required the Protestants to continue to take part in the Imperial wars against the Turks and the French, and postponed religious affairs until an [[ecumenical council]] of the Catholic Church was called by the Pope to solve the issue.

Due to Papal delays in organizing a general council, Charles V decided to organize a German summit and presided over the ''[[Diet of Regensburg (1541)|Colloquy of Regensburg]]'' between Catholics and Lutherans in 1541, but no compromise was achieved. In 1545, the [[Council of Trent]] was finally opened and the [[Counter-Reformation]] began. The Catholic initiative was supported by a number of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. However, the Schmalkaldic League refused to recognize the validity of the council and occupied territories of Catholic princes.<ref>Christopher W. Close, "Estate Solidarity and Empire: Charles V's Failed Attempt to Revive the Swabian League." ''Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte'' (2013 104#1 pp. 134–157), in English.</ref> Therefore, Charles V outlawed the Schmalkaldic League and opened hostilities against it in 1546.<ref>Paula Sutter Fichtner, "When Brothers Agree: Bohemia, The Habsburgs, and the Schmalkaldic Wars, 1546–1547." ''Austrian History Yearbook'' (1975), Vol. 11, pp. 67–78.</ref> The next year his forces drove the League's troops out of southern Germany, and defeated [[John Frederick, Elector of Saxony]], and [[Philip of Hesse]] at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]], capturing both. At the [[Augsburg Interim]] in 1548, he created a solution giving certain allowances to Protestants until the Council of Trent would restore unity. However, members of both sides resented the Interim and some actively opposed it.

The council was re-opened in 1550 with the participation of Lutherans, and Charles V set up the Imperial court in [[Innsbruck]], Austria, sufficiently close to Trent for him to follow the evolution of the debates. In 1552 Protestant princes, in alliance with [[Henry II of France]], rebelled again and the [[Second Schmalkaldic War]] began. [[Maurice of Saxony]], instrumental for the Imperial victory in the first conflict, switched side to the Protestant cause and bypassed the [[Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor|Imperial army]] by marching directly into Innsbruck with the goal of capturing the Emperor. Charles V was forced to flee the city during an attack of gout and barely made it alive to [[Villach]] in a state of semi-consciousness carried in a litter. After failing to recapture [[Metz]] from the French, Charles V returned to the Low Countries for the last years of his emperorship. In 1555, he instructed his brother Ferdinand to sign the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in his name. The agreements led to the religious division of Germany between Catholic and Protestant princedoms.{{sfn|Tracy|2002|pp=229–248}}