Editing Casimir Pulaski (section)

===In the United States===

====Northern front====
Franklin was impressed by Pulaski, and wrote of him: "Count{{efn|name=b}} Pulaski of Poland, an officer famous throughout Europe for his bravery and conduct in defence of the liberties of his country against the three great invading powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia&nbsp;... may be highly useful to our service."<ref name="Storozynski2010-55-56">[[#AlexStorozynski|Storozynski, 2010]], p. 56</ref> He subsequently recommended that General [[George Washington]] accept Pulaski as a volunteer in the [[American cavalry|Continental Army cavalry]].<ref name=cong>{{USPL|111|94}} U.S. Government Printing Office</ref> Pulaski departed France from [[Nantes]] in June, and arrived in [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]], near [[Boston]], on July 23, 1777.<ref name="psb392">[[#Szczygielski86|Szczygielski, 1986]], p. 392</ref> After his arrival, Pulaski wrote to Washington, "I came here, where freedom is being defended, to serve it, and to live or die for it."<ref name = cong />

[[File:Kazimierz Pułaski pod Częstochową.PNG|thumb|alt=1883 painting by Juliusz Kossak depicting Pulaski on horse back|Pulaski on horseback, painting by [[Juliusz Kossak]], 1883.]]
On August 20, he met Washington in his headquarters in [[Neshaminy Falls]], outside [[Philadelphia]].<ref name="psb392" /> He showed off riding stunts, and argued for the superiority of cavalry over infantry.<ref name="Storozynski2010-55-56" /> Because Washington was unable to grant him an officer rank, Pulaski spent the next few months traveling between Washington and the [[United States Congress]] in Philadelphia, awaiting his appointment.<ref name="psb392" /> His first military engagement against the British occurred before he received it, on September 11, 1777, at the [[Battle of Brandywine]].<ref name="psb392" />

When the [[Continental Army]] troops began to yield, he reconnoitered with Washington's bodyguard of about 30 men, and reported that the enemy were endeavoring to cut off the line of retreat.<ref name="Storozynski2010-55-56" /> Washington ordered him to collect as many as possible of the scattered troops who came his way and employ them according to his discretion to secure the retreat of the army.<ref name=appletons133>[[#appleton133|Appletons Cyclopaedia of American Biography: Pickering-Sumter, 1898]], p. 133</ref> His subsequent charge averted a disastrous defeat of the Continental Army cavalry,<ref name="Storozynski2010-55-56" /><ref name="psb392" /><ref name="Kazimierz Pulaski Citizenship">[[#Mission|Kazimierz Pulaski Granted U.S. Citizenship Posthumously, 2009]]</ref> earning him fame in America<ref name="Storozynski2010-57" /> and saving the life of George Washington.<ref>111th Congress Public Law 94</ref>

As a result, on September 15, 1777, on the orders of Congress, Washington commissioned Pulaski a [[brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in the Continental Army cavalry.<ref name= cong /> At that point, the cavalry was only a few hundred men strong organized into four regiments. These men were scattered among numerous infantry formations, and used primarily for scouting duties. Pulaski immediately began work on reforming the cavalry, and wrote the first regulations for the formation.<ref name="psb392" />

On September 16, while on patrol west of Philadelphia, Pulaski spotted significant British forces moving toward the Continental position. Upon being informed by Pulaski, Washington prepared for a battle, but the encounter [[Battle of the Clouds|was interrupted by a major storm]] before either side was organized.<ref name="SokolKissane1992">[[#Sokol1992|Sokol, 1992]], pp. 31–36</ref><ref name="McGuire 31-36">[[#McGuire|McGuire, 2006]], pp.31–36</ref> On October 4, Pulaski took part in the [[Battle of Germantown]]. He spent the winter of 1777 to 1778 with most of the army at [[Valley Forge]]. Pulaski argued that the military operations should continue through the winter, but this idea was rejected by the general staff. In turn, he directed his efforts towards reorganizing the cavalry force, mostly stationed in [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]].<ref name="psb392" />

While at Trenton his assistance was requested by General [[Anthony Wayne]], whom Washington had dispatched on a foraging expedition into southern New Jersey. Wayne was in danger of encountering a much larger British force sent to oppose his movements. Pulaski and 50 cavalry rode south to [[Burlington, New Jersey|Burlington]], where they skirmished with British sentries on February 28. After this minor encounter the British commander, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Stirling, was apparently convinced that he was facing a much larger force than expected, and prepared to withdraw his troops across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania at Cooper's Ferry (present-day [[Gloucester City, New Jersey|Gloucester City]]). Pulaski and Wayne joined forces to attack Stirling's position on February 29 while he awaited suitable weather conditions to cross.<ref name="Nelson 73-74" /> In the resulting skirmish, which only involved a few hundred men out of the larger forces on either side, Pulaski's horse was shot out from under him and a few of his cavalry were wounded.<ref name="Griffin 50-54">[[#Griffin1907|Griffin, 1907]], pp. 50–54</ref>

American officers serving under Pulaski had difficulty taking orders from a foreigner who could scarcely speak English and whose ideas of discipline and tactics differed enormously from those to which they were accustomed. This resulted in friction between the Americans and Pulaski and his fellow Polish officers.<ref name=appletons133 /><ref name="Kajencki2005-47">[[#Kajencki2005|Kajencki, 2005]], p. 47</ref> There was also discontent in the unit over delays in pay,<ref name="psb392" /> and Pulaski's imperious personality was a regular source of discontent among his peers, superiors, and subordinates.<ref name="presidential" /> Pulaski was also unhappy that his suggestion to create a [[lancer]] unit was denied.<ref name="psb392" /> Despite a commendation from Wayne, these circumstances prompted Pulaski to resign his general command in March 1778, and return to Valley Forge.<ref name="psb392" /><ref name=appletons133 />

Pulaski went to [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]], where he met with General [[Horatio Gates]] and suggested the creation of a new unit. At Gates' recommendation, Congress confirmed his previous appointment to the rank of a brigadier general, with a special title of "Commander of the Horse", and authorized the formation of a corps of 68 lancers and 200 light infantry.<ref name="Storozynski2010-55-56" /><ref name="psb392" /> This corps, which became known as the [[Pulaski's Legion]], was recruited mainly in [[Baltimore]], where it was headquartered.<ref name="psb392" /> By August 1778, the Pulaski's Legion numbered about 330 men, both Americans and foreigners. American Major-General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]] commented on the high standards of the Legion's training.<ref name="psb392" /> [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] would later commemorate in verse the consecration of the Legion's banner.<ref name="America1943" /> Longfellow's poem "The Hymn of the Moravian Nuns"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Longfellow: Hymn of the Moravian Nuns of Bethlehem, Voices of the Night |url=https://www.hwlongfellow.org/poems_poem.php?pid=200 |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW |language=en}}</ref> was, however, retracted by the poet in 1857 due to its ahistorical details.<ref>John W. Jordan, “Bethlehem during the revolution. Extracts from the Diaries in the Moravian Archives at Bethlehem,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 13, No. 1 (April 1889), 71-89, 82.</ref> Furthermore, according to the latest research it turns out that the Pulaski banner, which symbolised the legion, was inspired by the colours of the Hungarian national flag (red, white and green) in use since the early 17th century, and was created by the Moravian Lutheran Sisters according to the instructions of [[Michael Kovats]] in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in early 1778. The flag embedded cultural history elements reflecting the close [[Pole and Hungarian brothers be|Hungarian-Polish friendship]] and interstate relations back to the centuries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lacey |first=László Örlős and Anna Smith |date=2024-12-03 |title=The Forgotten Hungarian Origins of the Pułaski banner |url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2024/12/the-forgotten-hungarian-origins-of-the-pulaski-banner/ |access-date=2025-04-17 |website=Journal of the American Revolution |language=en-US}}</ref>

The "father of the American cavalry" demanded much of his men and trained them in tested cavalry tactics. Pulaski, supported by [[Michael Kovats]], often referred to as the co-founder of the U.S. cavalry, made great efforts to turn their cavalry into an effective force, and the improvement of the Legion's mounted arm drew high praise form the British.<ref>Lee F. McGee: European Influences on Continental Cavalry. In: Cavalry of the American Revolution, ed. Jim Piecuch. Westholme Publishing, 2014., 45.</ref> Pulaski used his own personal finances when money from Congress was scarce, in order to assure his forces of the finest equipment and personal safety.<ref name="Quest Seidner 1976" /><ref name="Storozynski2010-60" /> However, later that year a controversy arose related to the Legion's finances, and its requisitions from the local populace.<ref name="psb392" /> His troubles with the auditors continued until his death. Pulaski complained that he received inadequate funds, was obstructed by locals and officials, and was forced to spend his own money. He was not cleared of these charges until after his death.<ref name="psb393" />

In the autumn Pulaski was ordered to [[Little Egg Harbor]] on the coast of southeast [[New Jersey]], where in the engagement on October 15, known as the [[affair at Little Egg Harbor]], the legion suffered heavy losses.<ref name="psb392" /><ref name="StrykerJersey1894">[[#Stryker|Stryker, 1894]], p. 16</ref> During the following winter Pulaski was stationed at [[Minisink, New York|Minisink]], at that time in northwestern New Jersey.<ref name="psb393" /> Ordered to take part in the punitive [[Sullivan Expedition]] against the [[Iroquois people|Iroquois]], he was dissatisfied with this command, and intended to leave the service and return to Europe, but instead asked to be reassigned to the Southern front.<ref name="psb392" /><ref name="psb393" /> On February 2, 1779, Washington instead ordered him to [[South Carolina]].<ref name="psb393" />

====Southern front====
Pulaski arrived in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] on May 8, 1779, finding the city [[Siege of Charleston|in crisis]].<ref name="Wilson 107-108">[[#Wilson2005|Wilson, 2005]], pp. 107–108</ref> General [[Benjamin Lincoln]], commander of the southern army, had led most of the army toward [[Augusta, Georgia]], in a bid to recapture Savannah, which had been [[Capture of Savannah|captured by the British]] in late 1778.<ref name="Wilson 101-102">[[#Wilson2005|Wilson, 2005]], pp. 101–102</ref> The British commander, Brigadier General [[Augustine Prevost]], responded to Lincoln's move by launching a raiding expedition from Savannah across the [[Savannah River]].<ref name="Wilson 103">[[#Wilson2005|Wilson, 2005]], p. 103</ref> The South Carolina militia fell back before the British advance, and Prevost's force followed them all the way to Charleston. Pulaski arrived just as military leaders were establishing the city's defenses.<ref name="Russell 106">[[#Russell|Russell, 2000]], p. 106</ref>

When the British advanced on May 11, Pulaski's Legion engaged forward elements of the British force, and was badly mauled in the encounter. The Legion infantry, numbering only about 60 men before the skirmish, was virtually wiped out, and Pulaski was forced to retreat to the safety of the city's guns.<ref name="Wilson 108">[[#Wilson2005|Wilson, 2005]], p. 108</ref> Although some historians credit this action with Prevost's decision to withdraw back toward Savannah the next day, despite ongoing negotiations of a possible surrender of Charleston, that decision is more likely based on news Prevost received that Lincoln's larger force was returning to Charleston to face him, and that Prevost's troops had gone further than he had originally intended. One early historian criticized Pulaski's actions during that engagement as "ill-judged, ill-conducted, disgraceful and disastrous".<ref name="Griffin 95">[[#Griffin1907|Griffin, 1907]], p. 95</ref> The episode was of minor strategic consequence and did little to enhance the reputation of Pulaski's unit.<ref name="Russell 107">[[#Russell|Russell, 2000]], p. 107</ref>

[[File:Death of Pulaski.jpg|thumb|Pulaski mortally wounded by grapeshot while leading cavalry charge.]]
Although Pulaski frequently suffered from [[malaria]] while stationed in Charleston, he remained in active service. At the beginning of September, Lincoln prepared to launch an attempt to retake Savannah with French assistance. Pulaski was ordered to Augusta, where he was to join forces with General [[Lachlan McIntosh]].<ref name=appletons133 /> Their combined forces were to serve as the forward elements of Lincoln's army.<ref name="The history of Georgia: Revolutionary epoch">[[#Colcock1883|Colcock, 1883]], p. 378</ref> Pulaski captured a British outpost near [[Ogeechee River]].<ref name="Kajencki2005-93">[[#Kajencki2005|Kajencki, 2005]], p. 93</ref> His units then acted as an advance guard for the allied French units under Admiral [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing]].<ref name="psb393" /> He rendered great services during the [[siege of Savannah]], and in the assault of October 9 commanded the whole cavalry, both French and American.<ref name=appletons133 />