Editing Córdoba, Spain (section)

===Umayyad rule===
{{main|Umayyad state of Córdoba}}
Córdoba was captured by the Muslims in 711 or 712.<ref name="Collins1995">{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Collins |title=The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710 – 797 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPQcHwAACAAJ |date=17 February 1995 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-19405-7 |pages=42–43 |access-date=3 December 2020 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032639/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPQcHwAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike other Iberian towns, no capitulation was signed and the position was taken by storm. Córdoba was in turn governed by direct Arab rule. The new Umayyad commanders established themselves within the city and in 716 it became the provincial capital,<ref name="Collins1995" /> subordinate to the [[Caliphate of Damascus]], replacing [[Seville]]. In Arabic it was known as {{lang|ar|قرطبة}} (Qurṭuba).

The centre of the Roman and Visigothic cities became the walled [[Medina quarter|''medina'']]. Over time, as many as 21 suburbs ({{Lang|ar|رَبَض}} ''rabaḍ'', pl. {{Lang|ar|أَرْبَاض}} ''arbāḍ'') developed around the city.{{Sfn|Bennison|2016|p=281}}

In 747, a battle took place in the surroundings of Córdoba, the {{ill|Battle of Saqunda|es|Batalla de Secunda}}, pitting Arab Yemenites against northerner [[Qays]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Pierre |last=Guichard |author-link=Pierre Guichard |url=http://www.awraq.es/blob.aspx?idx=5&nId=87&hash=c0f21a00feda9892ddff3275ea63027c |year=2013 |journal=Awraq |issn=0214-834X |issue=7 |pages=5–24 |title=Córdoba, de la conquista musulmana a la conquista cristiana |publisher=Casa Árabe |access-date=31 July 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731075753/http://www.awraq.es/blob.aspx?idx=5&nId=87&hash=c0f21a00feda9892ddff3275ea63027c |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|8}}

Following the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] ousting of the Umayyad Caliphate after 750, the surviving Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman crossed to the Iberian Peninsula in 756. He proclaimed himself Emir [[Abd ar-Rahman I]] and established his dynasty in Córdoba once the [[rump state|rump]] ''wāli'' [[Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri]] was defeated at a battle outside the city in May 756.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Medieval Spain |first=Joseph F. |last=O'Callaghan |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1983 |orig-year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8014-9264-8 |pages=100–101 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=9–10}} In 785–786 (169 [[Hijri year|AH]]) he ordered construction of the [[Great Mosque of Córdoba]], which was completed the next year and underwent later expansions under his successors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Dodds |first=Jerrilynn D. |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages=11–26 |chapter=The Great Mosque of Córdoba |access-date=15 July 2022 |archive-date=31 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531010719/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last1=Barrucand |first1=Marianne |title=Moorish architecture in Andalusia |last2=Bednorz |first2=Achim |publisher=Taschen |year=1992 |isbn=3822896322 |pages=40 and after }}</ref>
[[File:Mezquita de Cordoba Mihrab.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mihrab]] of the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Great Mosque]]]]
Historians' estimations of Córdoba's population during the 9th century range from 75,000 to 160,000.<ref>{{cite book |page=150 |title=The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides the Fate of Nations |author=Ian Morris |year=2014 |isbn=9780691160863 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |page=569 |chapter=Spain and Portugal: Trade and Commerce |year=2017 |title=Routledge Revivals: Trade, Travel and Exploration in the Middle Ages (2000) |publisher=Taylor & Francis |editor=John Block Friedman, Kristen Mossler Figg |isbn=9781351661324 }}</ref> The ruthless repression of the 818 revolt in the southern suburb of Córdoba led to the destruction of the place.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=12–13}} In the 10th and 11th centuries Córdoba was one of the most advanced cities in the world, and a great cultural, political, financial and economic centre.<ref name="Encyclopedia">{{Cite NIE |wstitle=Cordova |year=1905 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spain from the 6th to 12th Century History |url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h08hispania.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018085730/http://fsmitha.com/h3/h08hispania.htm |archive-date=18 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>Amir Hussain, "Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue", in ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism'', Omid Safi (ed.), p.&nbsp;257 (Oneworld Publications, 2003).</ref>
[[File:Dirham abd al rahman iii 17494.jpg|thumb|[[Dirham]] emitted by [[Abd al-Rahman III]], coined in [[Medina Azahara]] (10th century)]]
Córdoba had a prosperous economy, with manufactured goods including leather, metal work, glazed tiles and textiles, and agricultural produce including a range of fruits, vegetables, herbs and spices, and materials such as cotton, flax and silk.<ref name="Córdoba: Historical Overview">{{cite web |title=Córdoba: Historical Overview |url=http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/cordoba-historical-overview/default_41.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030021158/http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/cordoba-historical-overview/default_41.aspx |archive-date=30 October 2013 |access-date=14 April 2014 }}</ref> It was also famous as a centre of learning, home to over 80 libraries and institutions of learning,<ref name="Encyclopedia"/><ref name="BBC">{{cite web |title=Muslim Spain (711–1492) |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 January 2017 |archive-date=27 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227151217/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/spain_1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> with knowledge of medicine, mathematics, astronomy, botany far exceeding the rest of Europe at the time.<ref name="Córdoba: Historical Overview"/> Later, the vizier [[Almanzor|al-Mansur]] – the ''de facto'' ruler of al-Andalus from 976 to 1002 – burned most of the books on philosophy from the library of Caliph [[al-Hakam II]] to appease [[Maliki]] jurists (''[[ulama]]''); most of the others were sold off or perished in the civil strife not long after.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gilliot |first=Claude |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&dq=al-mansur+cordoba+books+burned&pg=PT72 |title=Routledge Revivals: Medieval Islamic Civilization (2006): An Encyclopedia – Volume II |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-351-66813-2 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef |pages=451 |language=en |chapter=Libraries |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925032640/https://books.google.com/books?id=P-pGDwAAQBAJ&dq=al-mansur+cordoba+books+burned&pg=PT72#v=onepage&q=al-mansur%20cordoba%20books%20burned&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Safran |first=Janina M. |date=3 July 2014 |title=The politics of book burning in al-Andalus |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |journal=Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=148–168 |doi=10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |s2cid=153574149 |issn=1754-6559 |access-date=21 August 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033200/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17546559.2014.925134 |url-status=live }}</ref>

After a period of weak central rule, [[Abd al-Rahman III|Abd ar-Rahman III]] came to power as emir in 912 and campaigned lengthily and systematically to re-establish the authority of Córdoba across Al-Andalus. In 929, after years of military and diplomatic efforts, he felt confident enough to declare himself "[[Caliphate|caliph]]", a title challenging the Abbasid caliphs in [[Baghdad]] and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliphs in North Africa. This inaugurated the height of Córdoba's power and influence in the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781317870418 |location= |pages= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Catlos |first=Brian A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |title=Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain |publisher=Basic Books |year=2018 |isbn=9780465055876 |location=New York |access-date=27 August 2022 |archive-date=22 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922224337/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }}</ref> This century saw the construction of two palatine cities in the surroundings of Córdoba: [[Madinat al-Zahra|Madīnat al-Zahrā]] to the west, built by Abd ar-Rahman III, and another one built later by [[Almanzor|al-Mansur]] ({{ill|Medina Alzahira|es}}) to the east.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|p=17}} 
[[Isa al-Razi]] describes Cordoba as "surrounded by many beautiful estates" and many varied fruit trees. The inner city of Cordoba was surrounded by 11 palaces, 22 ''almuna'' and 12 ''arbad'' (or suburbs), mainly on the right bank of the Guadalquivir, and in particular to the north and west of the city. Not much later, [[Ibn Bashkuwal]] lists a total of 21 suburbs (two to the south, three to the north, seven to the east and nine to the west). To the north, part of the rabad al-Rusafa was located just south of the present Parador of Arruzafa (or Parador of Cordoba), where excavations in the 1990s uncovered the remains of a variety of ''almuna'', Roman villas and irrigation systems (with one ''[[Cistern|aljibe]]'' of the early medieval period preserved in the basement of a private suburban house).{{sfn|Scales|1997|p=177}}
The economic historian [[J. Bradford DeLong]] estimates the city's population at 400,000 around 1000 AD,<ref name=Population>{{citation |title=Princes and Merchants: European City Growth before the Industrial Revolution |author=J. Bradford De Long and Andrei Shleifer |s2cid=13961320 |journal=[[The Journal of Law and Economics]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |date=October 1993 |pages=671–702 [678] |doi=10.1086/467294 |url=http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/pdf_files/Princes.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.164.4092 |access-date=27 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729053941/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/pdf_files/Princes.pdf |archive-date=29 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while estimates from other historians range from 100,000 to 1,000,000 during the same era.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|pp=17–18}} Whatever Córdoba's population was, the city's apogee came to an abrupt halt after the 1009 crisis.{{Sfn|Guichard|2013|p=18}}

On 15 February 1009, with [[Hisham II]] as caliph and [[Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo]] as hajib (and ''de facto'' ruler), a revolution broke out in Córdoba, which led to the proclamation of an alternative caliph.{{Sfn|Peinado Santaella|2012|p=110}} This marked the beginning of a long period of civil war and conflict in Al-Andalus known as the ''[[Fitna of al-Andalus|Fitna]]''. Berbers entered and sacked Córdoba in May 1013.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5KQtWX0TTcC&pg=PA110 |page=110 |title=Breve historia de Andalucía |editor-first=Manuel |editor-last=Peña Díaz |year=2012 |isbn=978-84-939926-1-3 |publisher=Centro de Estudios Andaluces |first=Rafael G. |last=Peinado Santaella |chapter=El período andalusí (ss. VIII-XV) |access-date=16 November 2021 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925033144/https://books.google.com/books?id=m5KQtWX0TTcC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Hisham III]] was routed from Córdoba on 30 November 1031 and an oligarchic republic replaced the caliphate.{{Sfn|Peinado Santaella|2012|p=111}}<ref>[http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/10th-c-al-andalus-al-mansur/default_144.aspx "10th C. Al-Andalus: Al-Mansur."] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008085451/http://www.spainthenandnow.com/spanish-history/10th-c-al-andalus-al-mansur/default_144.aspx |date=8 October 2016 }} and [http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/Enc_of_Medieval_Iberia/homosexuality.pdf Daniel Eisenberg, "Homosexuality" in ''Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia'', ed. Michael Gerli (Routledge, 2003), 398.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328011756/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/deisenbe/Enc_of_Medieval_Iberia/homosexuality.pdf |date=28 March 2016 }} and J. B. Bury, The Cambridge Medieval History vol 3 – Germany and the Western Empire (CreateSpace Independent Publishing, 2011), 378–379.</ref>