Editing Biotechnology (section)

===Medicine===
In medicine, modern biotechnology has many applications in areas such as [[pharmaceutical drug]] discoveries and production, [[pharmacogenomics]], and genetic testing (or [[Genetic testing|genetic screening]]). In 2021, nearly 40% of the total company value of pharmaceutical biotech companies worldwide were active in [[Oncology]] with [[Neurology]] and [[Rare Disease]]s being the other two big applications.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=March 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Microarray2.gif|thumb|[[DNA microarray]] chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. ]]

[[Pharmacogenomics]] (a combination of [[pharmacology]] and [[genomics]]) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.<ref>Ermak G. (2013) ''Modern Science & Future Medicine'' (second edition)</ref> Researchers in the field investigate the influence of [[genetics|genetic]] variation on drug responses in patients by correlating [[gene expression]] or [[single-nucleotide polymorphism]]s with a drug's [[efficacy]] or [[toxicity]].<ref name="pmid20836007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wang L |year=2010 |title=Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach |journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Systems Biology and Medicine |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=3–22 |doi=10.1002/wsbm.42 |pmc=3894835 |pmid=20836007}}</ref> The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' [[genotype]], to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal [[adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]].<ref name="pmid19530963">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Becquemont L |date=June 2009 |title=Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=961–9 |doi=10.2217/pgs.09.37 |pmid=19530963}}</ref> Such approaches promise the advent of "[[personalized medicine]]"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm126957.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Guidance for Industry Pharmacogenomic Data Submissions |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] |access-date=August 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="pmid20712531">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, Mitropoulos K, Del Zompo M, Patrinos GP |date=August 2010 |title=Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice |journal=Pharmacogenomics |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1149–67 |doi=10.2217/pgs.10.97 |pmid=20712531}}</ref>

[[File:InsulinHexamer.jpg|thumb|Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold [[symmetry]], the [[zinc]] ions holding it together, and the [[histidine]] residues involved in zinc binding]]

Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional [[small molecule]] [[pharmaceutical drugs]] as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – [[biopharmaceutics]]. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 [[Genentech]] developed synthetic humanized [[insulin]] by joining its gene with a [[plasmid]] vector inserted into the bacterium ''[[Escherichia coli]]''. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of [[abattoir]] animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 |title=Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do? |vauthors=Bains W |publisher=Penguin |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-14-013501-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geneticengineeri00bain/page/99 99] |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="USIS">U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, "Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology", USIS Online; available from [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html USinfo.state.gov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065554/http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html |date=September 12, 2007 }}, accessed September 13, 2007. Cf. {{Cite journal |vauthors=Feldbaum C |date=February 2002 |title=Biotechnology. Some history should be repeated |journal=Science |volume=295 |issue=5557 |page=975 |doi=10.1126/science.1069614 |pmid=11834802|s2cid=32595222 }}</ref> Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like [[gene therapy]]. The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the [[Human Genome Project]]) has also dramatically improved our understanding of [[biology]] and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well.<ref name=USIS/>

[[Genetic testing]] allows the [[Genetics|genetic]] [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of vulnerabilities to inherited [[diseases]], and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's [[ancestry]]. In addition to studying [[chromosomes]] to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes [[biochemical]] tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in [[chromosomes]], genes, or proteins.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting |title=What is genetic testing? – Genetics Home Reference |date=May 30, 2011 |publisher=Ghr.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=May 29, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529002711/http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting }}</ref> Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a [[genetic disorder]]. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |title=Genetic Testing: MedlinePlus |publisher=Nlm.nih.gov |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-date=June 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608142655/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |title=Definitions of Genetic Testing |date=September 11, 2008 |website=Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães) |publisher=EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204181251/http://eurogentest.org/patient/public_health/info/public/unit3/DefinitionsGeneticTesting-3rdDraf18Jan07.xhtml |archive-date=February 4, 2009 |access-date=August 10, 2008}}</ref> Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by [[genetic counseling]].