Editing Berry (section)

== Cultivation ==
[[Image:Brambleberries.svg|thumb|''[[Rubus]]'' berries have been [[plant breeding|crossbred]] to create a diverse range of [[brambleberries]] with desirable traits]]

[[Strawberries]] have been grown in gardens in Europe since the 14th{{nbsp}}century.{{zwj}}<ref name="wild crop"/> [[Blueberries]] were domesticated starting in 1911, with the first commercial crop in 1916.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Blueberries&nbsp;– Celebrating 100 Years|url=http://www.blueberrycouncil.org/about-blueberries/history-of-blueberries/|website=Blueberry Council|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> [[Huckleberries]] of all varieties are not fully domesticated, but domestication was attempted from 1994 to 2010 for the economically significant [[western huckleberry]].{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Russell|first1=Betsy Z.|title=Wild huckleberry nearly tamed|url=http://idahoptv.org/Outdoors/shows/tasteofidaho/russellarticle.cfm|website=idahoptv|access-date=11 August 2015|archive-date=3 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803071930/http://idahoptv.org/outdoors/shows/tasteofidaho/russellarticle.cfm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pittaway|first1=Jenna|title=Dr Barney Interview on the Western Huckleberry|url=http://wildhuckleberry.com/2014/04/10/dr-barney-western-huckleberry/|website=wildhuckleberry|date=10 April 2014|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> Many other varieties of ''[[Vaccinium]]'' are likewise not domesticated, with some being of commercial importance.

[[File:Ostružiník moruška ve Finsku.jpg|thumb|[[Cloudberry]], common flowering plant in the cool [[temperate]] regions, [[alpine tundra|alpine]] and [[arctic tundra]] and [[boreal forest]].{{zwj}}<ref name="thiem">{{cite journal|author=Thiem B|year=2003|title=''Rubus chamaemorus'' L. – a boreal plant rich in biologically active metabolites: a review|journal=Biological Letters|volume=40|issue=1|pages=3–13|url=http://www.biollett.amu.edu.pl/biollett_40_1_3_13.pdf|access-date=17 September 2020|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809003409/http://www.biollett.amu.edu.pl/biollett_40_1_3_13.pdf}}</ref>]]

=== Agricultural methods ===
Like most other food crops, berries are commercially grown, with both conventional pest management and [[integrated pest management]]{{nbsp}}(IPM) practices. [[Organically certified]] berries are becoming more widely available.{{zwj}}<ref name="Zhao2007"/><sup>:5</sup>

Many soft fruit berries require a period of temperatures between {{convert|0 and 10|C}} for breaking dormancy. In general, [[strawberries]] require 200–300{{nbsp}}hours, [[blueberries]] 650–850{{nbsp}}hours, [[blackberries]] 700{{nbsp}}hours, [[raspberries]] 800–1700{{nbsp}}hours, [[Ribes|currants]] and [[gooseberries]] 800–1500{{nbsp}}hours, and [[cranberries]] 2000{{nbsp}}hours.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry>{{cite web|last1=Pritts|first1=Dr. Marvin|title=Site and Soil requirements for small fruit crops|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/sitesoireqsmfru.rev.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> However, too low a temperature will kill the crops: blueberries do not tolerate temperatures below {{convert|−29|C}}, raspberries, depending on variety, may tolerate as low as {{convert|−31|C}}, and blackberries are injured below {{convert|−20|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> Spring frosts are, however, much more damaging to berry crops than low winter temperatures. Sites with moderate slopes{{nbsp}}({{val|3|–|5|u=%}}), facing north or east in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], near large bodies of water, which regulate spring temperature, are considered ideal in preventing spring frost injury to the new leaves and flowers.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> All berry crops have shallow [[root systems]].{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> Many US [[land-grant university]] extension offices suggest that strawberries should not be planted more than five years on the same site, due to the danger of [[black root rot]] (though many other illnesses go by the same name), which in the past has been controlled in major commercial production by annual [[methyl bromide]] fumigation<ref>{{cite web|last1=Handley|first1=David T.|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://umaine.edu/publications/2067e/|website=[[University of Maine]] Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://extension.illinois.edu/strawberries/growing.cfm|website=[[University of Illinois]] Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Whiting|first1=David|title=Growing Strawberries in Colorado Gardens|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/Gardennotes/763.html|website=[[Colorado State University]] Extension|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821083825/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/Gardennotes/763.html|archive-date=21 August 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gao|first1=Gary|title=Strawberries are an Excellent Fruit for the Home Garden|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1424.html|website=Ohio State University Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kluepfel|first1=Marjan|last2=Polomski|first2=Bob|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/small_fruits/hgic1405.html|website=Clemson Cooperative Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Strawberry Production Systems|url=http://www.mofga.org/Publications/MaineOrganicFarmerGardener/Spring2012/Strawberries/tabid/2136/Default.aspx|website=Maine Organic Farmers and Gardners Association|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906013154/http://www.mofga.org/Publications/MaineOrganicFarmerGardener/Spring2012/Strawberries/tabid/2136/Default.aspx|archive-date=6 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ruttan|first1=Denise|title=Plant strawberries and boost your health|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/plant-strawberries-and-boost-your-health|website=[[Oregon State University Extension Service]]|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928001154/http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/plant-strawberries-and-boost-your-health|archive-date=28 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=OrganicBerry>{{cite web|last1=Pritts|first1=Dr. Marvin|title=Key Features of Organic Berry Crop Production|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/Keyfeatorgberrycropprod.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> but which is largely prohibited now.{{zwj}}{{Where|date=March 2025}} Besides the number of years in production, [[soil compaction]], the frequency of fumigation, and herbicide usages increase the appearance of black root rot in strawberries.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry /> Raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, and many other berries are susceptible to [[verticillium wilt]]. Blueberries and cranberries grow poorly if the clay or silt content of the soil is more than 20%, while most other berries tolerate a wide range of [[soil types]].{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> For most berry crops, the ideal soil is well drained sandy [[loam]], with [[soil pH|a pH]] of 6.2–6.8 and a moderate to high organic content; however, blueberries have an ideal pH of 4.2–4.8 and can be grown on muck soils, while blueberries and cranberries prefer poorer soils with lower [[cation-exchange capacity|cation exchange]], lower calcium, and lower levels of phosphorus.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry />

Growing most berries organically requires the use of proper [[crop rotation]], the right mix of [[cover crops]], and the cultivation of the correct [[Soil microbes|beneficial microorganisms]] in the soil.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry /> As blueberries and cranberries thrive in soils that are not hospitable to most other plants, and conventional fertilizers are toxic to them, the primary concern when growing them organically is bird management.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry />

Postharvest small fruit berries are generally stored at {{val|90|–|95|u=%}} [[relative humidity]] and {{convert|0|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry>{{cite web|last1=DeEll|first1=Dr. Jennifer|title=Postharvest Handling and Storage of Berries|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/storage_berries.htm|website=omafra|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> Cranberries, however, are frost sensitive, and should be stored at {{convert|3|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Blueberries are the only berries that respond to [[ethylene]], but flavor does not improve after harvest, so they require the same treatment as other berries. Removal of ethylene may reduce disease and spoilage in all berries.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Precooling within one to two hours post-harvest to storage temperature, generally{{nbsp}}{{convert|0|C}}, via forced air cooling increases the storage life of berries by about a third.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Under optimum storage conditions, raspberries and blackberries last for two to five days, strawberries 7–10{{nbsp}}days, blueberries two to four weeks, and cranberries two to four months.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Berries can be shipped under high carbon dioxide or [[modified atmosphere]] of {{val|10|–|15|u=%}} carbon dioxide for high carbon dioxide or {{val|15|–|20|u=%}} carbon dioxide and {{val|5|–|10|u=%}} oxygen for a modified atmosphere container to increase shelf life and prevent [[grey mold rot]].{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry />

[[File:Berries Contrast.JPG|thumb|Example of color contrast in (mostly inedible) wild berries]]

=== Breeding ===
Several discoveries in the science of breeding berries were made in the 18th{{nbsp}}century by {{langr|fr|[[Antoine Nicolas Duchesne]]}} in his work on strawberries.{{zwj}}<ref name="duchesne"/> In the traditional technique of [[plant breeding]], berries with specific desirable characteristics were chosen and allowed to sexually reproduce with other berries, and offspring with improved traits could then be selected and used for further crossing. Plants may be [[Plant hybrid|hybridized]] with different species within the same [[genus]]; hybridization between different genus may also be possible, but more difficult. Breeding may seek to increase the size and yield of the fruit, improve the flavor and quality of its nutrient content, such as antioxidants, expand the harvest season, and produce [[cultivars]] with resistance to diseases, tolerance of hot or cold conditions, and other desirable traits.{{zwj}}<ref name="folta">{{cite book|author1=Kevin M. Folta|author-link1=Kevin Folta|author2=Chittaranjan Kole|title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=16 May 2011|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn=978-1-4398-5660-4}}</ref> Advancements in [[molecular biology]] and [[genetic engineering]] allow for a more efficient and better targeted approach in the selection for a desirable [[genotype]], via [[marker-assisted selection]], for example.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite journal |title= Marker assisted selection for seedlessness in table grape breeding |author=Eda Karaagac |author2=Alba M. Vargas |author3=María Teresa de Andrés |author4=Iván Carreño |author5=Javier Ibáñez |author6=Juan Carreño |author7=José Miguel Martínez-Zapater |author8=José Antonio Cabeza |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes|date=October 2012 |volume= 8|issue =5 |pages= 1003–1015 |doi=10.1007/s11295-012-0480-0|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/292721 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Genetically modified organism|Genetic modification]] techniques can also be used for breeding berries.{{zwj}}<ref name=folta/>

=== Horticultural soft fruit berries ===
Some fruit not commonly referred to as berries and not always botanically berries are included by US [[land-grant university]] extension offices in their guides for berry cultivation, or in guides for identifying local wild edible and non-edible berries. Examples include [[beach plum]]s,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Whitlow|first1=Dr. Thomas|title=Beach Plum|url=http://www.beachplum.cornell.edu/|website=Cornell|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> [[American persimmons]], [[Asimina triloba|pawpaws]], [[Pacific crabapple]]s, and [[Opuntia|prickly pears]].{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Edible Berries of the Pacific Northwest|url=http://northernbushcraft.com/guide.php?ctgy=edible_berries&region=pnw|website=Northern Bushcraft|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref>