Editing Antelope (section)

==Morphology==
{{Noref section|date=August 2019}}
[[File:Antilope girafe debout.jpg|thumb|[[Gerenuk]]s can stand erect on their hind legs to browse on high foliage]]
===Body and covering===
Antelope vary greatly in size. For example, a male [[common eland]] can measure {{convert|178|cm|ftin|frac=2|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and weigh almost {{convert|950|kg|lb|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, whereas an adult [[royal antelope]] may stand only {{convert|24|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and weigh a mere {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|frac=4|abbr=on}}.

Not surprisingly for animals with long, slender yet powerful legs, many antelope have long strides and can run fast. Some (e.g. klipspringer) are also adapted to inhabiting rock koppies and crags. Both [[dibatag]]s and [[gerenuk]]s habitually stand on their two hind legs to reach [[acacia]] and other tree foliage. Different antelope have different body types, which can affect movement. Duikers are short, bush-dwelling antelope that can pick through dense foliage and dive into the shadows rapidly. [[Gazelle]] and [[springbok]] are known for their speed and leaping abilities. Even larger antelope, such as nilgai, [[Taurotragus|elands]], and [[kudu]]s, are capable of jumping {{convert|2.4|m|ftin|abbr=on}} or greater, although their running speed is restricted by their greater mass.

Antelope have a wide variety of coverings, though most have a dense coat of short fur. In most species, the coat (pelage) is some variation of a brown colour (or several shades of brown), often with white or pale underbodies. Exceptions include the zebra-marked [[zebra duiker]], the grey, black, and white [[Jentink's duiker]], and the [[black lechwe]]. Most of the "spiral-horned" antelope have pale, vertical stripes on their backs. Many desert and semidesert species are particularly pale, some almost silvery or whitish (e.g. Arabian oryx); the [[Beisa oryx|beisa]] and [[Southern Oryx|southern oryxes]] have gray and black pelages with vivid black-and-white faces. Common features of various [[gazelle]]s are white rumps, which flash a warning to others when they run from danger, and dark stripes midbody (the latter feature is also shared by the springbok and beira). The springbok also has a pouch of white, brushlike hairs running along its back, which opens up when the animal senses danger, causing the dorsal hairs to stand on end.

Many antelope are sexually dimorphic. In most species, both sexes have horns, but those of males tend to be larger. Males tend to be larger than the females, but exceptions in which the females tend to be heavier than the males include the [[bush duiker]], [[Neotragini|dwarf antelope]], [[Cape grysbok]], and [[oribi]], all rather small species. A number of species have hornless females (e.g., [[sitatunga]], [[red lechwe]], and [[suni]]). In some species, the males and females have differently coloured pelages (e.g. [[blackbuck]] and [[nyala]]). 

Many wild antelopes are characterized by high running and jumping abilities. Their main defence against predators is to try to escape. 

Species such as [[black wildebeest]], [[springbok]], [[blesbok]], [[mountain reedbuck]], [[greater kudu]] as well the [[European fallow deer]] have a high concentrations of [[Glycolysis|glycolitic]] [[Fast twitch fiber|fast twitch]] type IIx muscle fibers; smaller species naturally have a higher concentrations of type IIx fibers than larger species.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=T. A. |date=2014 |title=Insights into the skeletal muscle characteristics of three southern African antelope species |journal=Biology Open |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=1037–1044 |doi=10.1242/bio.20149241 |issn=2046-6390 |pmc=4232761 |pmid=25326514}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Curry |first2=J. W. |last3=Noakes |first3=T. D. |date=2011 |title=Black wildebeest skeletal muscle exhibits high oxidative capacity and a high proportion of type IIx fibres |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/214/23/4041/10618/Black-wildebeest-skeletal-muscle-exhibits-high |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=214 |issue=23 |pages=4041–4047 |doi=10.1242/jeb.061572 |pmid=22071196 |bibcode=2011JExpB.214.4041K |issn=0022-0949}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=J. W. |last2=Hohl |first2=R. |last3=Noakes |first3=T. D. |last4=Kohn |first4=T. A. |date=2012 |title=High oxidative capacity and type IIx fibre content in springbok and fallow deer skeletal muscle suggest fast sprinters with a resistance to fatigue |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=215 |issue=22 |pages=3997–4005 |doi=10.1242/jeb.073684 |issn=0022-0949 |pmc=3597281 |pmid=22899533}}</ref> Although their concentration of type IIx fibers is still lower than that of the wild [[cheetah]], other running-adapted mammal; wild cheetah [[vastus lateralis muscle]] have a concentration of 76 % of type IIx fibers, compared to 58 % of springbok, 57 % of mountain reedbuck, 55 % of blesbok, 48 % of European fallow deer, 43 % of greater kudu and 30 % black wildebeest.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=T. M. |last2=Dobson |first2=G. P. |last3=Mathieu-Costello |first3=O. |last4=Morsbach |first4=D. |last5=Worley |first5=M. B. |last6=Phillips |first6=J. A. |date=1997 |title=Skeletal muscle histology and biochemistry of an elite sprinter, the African cheetah |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13826213 |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology B |language=en |volume=167 |issue=8 |pages=527–535 |doi=10.1007/s003600050105 |pmid=9404014 |issn=1432-136X}}</ref>

The activity of the anaerobic enzyme [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]], an indicator of a principally anaerobic muscle metabolism, is around 4 times more higher than that of humans, a level of activity comparable to that of the [[lion]], but lower than that of the wild [[caracal]] and especially that of the wild cheetah; LDH activity is 6 times higher than that of the humans in caracal and 9 times higher in the wild cheetah.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kohn |first1=T. A. |last2=Burroughs |first2=R. |last3=Hartman |first3=M. J. |last4=Noakes |first4=T. D. |date=2011 |title=Fiber type and metabolic characteristics of lion (Panthera leo), caracal (Caracal caracal) and human skeletal muscle |url=https://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/handle/2263/19598/Kohn_Fiber(2011).pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |volume=159 |issue=2 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.02.006 |pmid=21320626 |issn=1095-6433}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> 

Activity of aerobic enzymes [[Citrate synthase|CS]] and [[3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase|3HAD]] is higher than that of the felids in general and is comparable to that of human endurance runners. This indicates muscles capable of both high speed and high endurance.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> 

[[Impala]] muscles, on the other hand, have a high concentrations of oxidative-glycolitic fast twitch type IIa muscle fibers.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Kohn |first=T. A. |last2=Kritzinger |first2=B. |last3=Hoffman |first3=L. C. |last4=Myburgh |first4=K. H. |date=2005 |title=Characteristics of impala (Aepyceros melampus) skeletal muscles |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S030917400400186X |journal=Meat Science |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=277–282 |doi=10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.07.007 |issn=0309-1740}}</ref> 

Both impala and [[reindeer]] have a CS level activity comparable to that of the human endurance runners and their muscle metabolism appears to be principally aerobic, indicating muscles capable of high endurance.<ref name=":5" /> 

In the impala, hindlimbs muscles form 17.5 % of their body mass while forelimbs muscles form 11.3 %.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=A. M. |last2=Hubel |first2=T. Y. |last3=Wilshin |first3=S. D. |last4=Lowe |first4=J. C. |last5=Lorenc |first5=M. |last6=Dewhirst |first6=O. P. |last7=Bartlam-Brooks |first7=H. L. A. |last8=Diack |first8=R. |last9=Bennitt |first9=E. |last10=Golabek |first10=K. A. |last11=Woledge |first11=R. C. |last12=McNutt |first12=J. W. |last13=Curtin |first13=N. A. |last14=West |first14=T. G. |date=2018 |title=Biomechanics of predator–prey arms race in lion, zebra, cheetah and impala |url=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/js/pdfjs/web/viewer.html?file=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/previewfile/1388812/11143.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=554 |issue=7691 |pages=183–188 |bibcode=2018Natur.554..183W |doi=10.1038/nature25479 |issn=1476-4687 |pmid=29364874}}</ref> Compared to the reindeer in which hind and forelimb muscles form 14.8 % and 10.9 % of their body mass, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wareing |first=K. |last2=Tickle |first2=P. G. |last3=Stokkan |first3=K. |last4=Codd |first4=J. R. |last5=Sellers |first5=W. I. |date=2011 |title=The musculoskeletal anatomy of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): fore- and hindlimb |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225608444_The_musculoskeletal_anatomy_of_the_reindeer_Rangifer_tarandus_Fore-_and_hindlimb |journal=Polar Biology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=10 |pages=1571–1578 |doi=10.1007/s00300-011-1017-y |issn=1432-2056}}</ref> 

Furthermore, antelopes tend to have elongated limb bones for their body masses.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Alexander |first=R. McNeill |url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsaspredato0000unse/mode/1up |title=Mammals as predators: the proceedings of a symposium held by the Zoological Society of London and the Mammal Society, London, 22nd and 23rd November 1991 |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford: Published for the Zoological Society of London by Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-854067-0 |editor-last=Dunstone |editor-first=N. |pages=1–13 |chapter=Legs and Locomotion of Carnivora |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198540670.003.0001 |editor-last2=Gorman |editor-first2=M. L. |chapter-url=}}</ref> 

A maximum running speed of 63.7 km/h for the impala and 54 km/h for the [[blue wildebeest]] has been estimated by GPS-[[Inertial measurement unit|IMU]] collars.<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Curtin |first=N. A. |last2=Bartlam-Brooks |first2=H. L. A. |last3=Hubel |first3=T. Y. |last4=Lowe |first4=J. C. |last5=Gardner-Medwin |first5=A. R. |last6=Bennitt |first6=E. |last7=Amos |first7=S. J. |last8=Lorenc |first8=M. |last9=West |first9=T. G. |last10=Wilson |first10=A. M. |date=2018 |title=Remarkable muscles, remarkable locomotion in desert-dwelling wildebeest |url=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/js/pdfjs/web/viewer.html?file=https://rvc-repository.worktribe.com/previewfile/1385428/11790.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=563 |issue=7731 |pages=393–396 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0602-4 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> A top speed of 65.2 km/h is obtained by calculating the distance and time it takes a [[Thomson's gazelle]] to escape from an approaching human.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Holmern |first=T. |last2=Setsaas |first2=T. H. |last3=Melis |first3=C. |last4=Tufto |first4=J. |last5=Røskaft |first5=E. |date=2016 |title=Effects of experimental human approaches on escape behavior in Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301601541_Effects_of_experimental_human_approaches_on_escape_behavior_in_Thomson's_gazelle_Eudorcas_thomsonii |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=1432–1440 |doi=10.1093/beheco/arw052 |issn=1045-2249}}</ref> Film analysis of lion hunts gives a maximum speed of 90 km/h for the Thomson's gazelle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sorkin |first=B. |date=2008 |title=Limb bone stresses during fast locomotion in the African lion and its bovid prey |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230025975_Limb_bone_stresses_during_fast_locomotion_in_the_African_lion_and_its_bovid_prey |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=276 |issue=2 |pages=213–218 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00477.x |issn=1469-7998}}</ref> By speedometer reading when an animal runs alongside a car on a straight course, a maximum speed of up to 70 km/h has been estimated for the [[Common eland|eland]] and the [[topi]], and up to 80 km/h for the [[hartebeest]], blue wildebeest, [[Grant's gazelle]] and Thomson's gazelle.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schaller |first=G. |url=https://archive.org/details/serengetilion00geor/mode/1up |title=The Serengeti lion: A study of predator-prey relations |last2= |first2= |last3= |first3= |date=1972 |publisher=Chicago : University of Chicago Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-226-73640-2 |pages=233, 317}}</ref>  

[[Red forest duiker|Red forest duikers]] can jump cleanly over fences 1.6 m high, an impressive feat considering their shoulder height of 30 cm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Vos |first=V. |date=1979 |title=Extraordinary jumping ability of the Red Forest Duiker Cephalophus Natalensis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47296278_Extraordinary_jumping_ability_of_the_Red_Forest_Duiker_Cephalophus_Natalensis |journal=Koedoe |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=217 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v22i1.662 |issn=2071-0771|doi-access=free }}</ref> Impalas can jump highs of 2.4 m (8 ft). <ref>{{Cite book |last=Hildebrand |first=M. |url=https://archive.org/details/analysisofverteb0000hild_e4d0 |title=Analysis of vertebrate structure |date=1980 |publisher=New York: J. Wiley |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-471-30823-2}}</ref> 

===Sensory and digestive systems===
Antelope are [[ruminant]]s, so they have well-developed [[molar teeth]], which grind [[cud]] (food balls stored in the stomach) into a pulp for further digestion. They have no upper incisors, but rather a hard upper gum pad, against which their lower incisors bite to tear grass stems and leaves.

Like many other [[herbivore]]s, antelope rely on keen senses to avoid predators. Their eyes are placed on the sides of their heads, giving them a broad radius of vision with minimal binocular vision. Their horizontally elongated pupils also help in this respect. Acute senses of smell and hearing give antelope the ability to perceive danger at night out in the open (when predators are often on the prowl). These same senses play an important role in contact between individuals of the same species; markings on their heads, ears, legs, and rumps are used in such communication. Many species "flash" such markings, as well as their tails; vocal communications include loud barks, whistles, "moos", and trumpeting; many species also use [[scent marking]] to define their [[territory (animal)|territories]] or simply to maintain contact with their relatives and neighbors.

===Antelope horns===
{{Redirect|Antelope horns|the milkweed commonly known as antelope horns|Asclepias asperula}}
[[File:Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary b2 844-2.jpg|thumb|Antelope horns]]
The size and shape of antelope horns varies greatly. Those of the duikers and dwarf antelope tend to be simple "spikes", but differ in the angle to the head from backward curved and backward pointing (e.g. [[yellow-backed duiker]]) to straight and upright (e.g. [[steenbok]]). Other groups have twisted (e.g. [[common eland]]), spiral (e.g. [[greater kudu]]), "recurved" (e.g. the [[reedbuck]]s), lyrate (e.g. [[impala]]), or long, curved (e.g. the [[oryx]]es) horns. Horns are not shed and their bony cores are covered with a thick, persistent sheath of [[Keratin|horny material]], both of which distinguish them from antlers.<ref>Prothero, D. R. and Schoch, R. M. (2002) ''Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals''. JHU Press. {{ISBN|0801871352}}</ref>

Antelope horns are efficient weapons, and tend to be better developed in those species where males fight over females (large herd antelope) than in solitary or [[Lek (biology)|lekking]] species. With male-male competition for mates, horns are clashed in combat. Males more commonly use their horns against each other than against another species. The boss of the horns is typically arranged in such a way that two antelope striking at each other's horns cannot crack each other's skulls, making a fight via horn more ritualized than dangerous. Many species have ridges in their horns for at least two-thirds the length of their horns, but these ridges are not a direct indicator of age.