Editing Ancient Greek (section)

==Phonology==

===Differences from Proto-Indo-European===
{{Main|Proto-Greek language}}
Ancient Greek differs from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In [[phonotactics]], ancient Greek words could end only in a vowel or {{IPA|/n s r/}}; final stops were lost, as in {{lang|grc|γάλα}} "milk", compared with {{lang|grc|γάλακτος}} "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes,<ref name="Fortson">{{Cite book |title=Indo-European language and culture: an introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/indoeuropeanlang00ivbe |url-access=limited |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. |publisher=Blackwell|year=2004 |isbn=978-1405103152 |location=Malden, Mass |pages=[https://archive.org/details/indoeuropeanlang00ivbe/page/n241 226]–231 |oclc=54529041 }}</ref> notably the following:
* PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|s}} became {{IPA|/h/}} at the beginning of a word ([[debuccalization]]): Latin ''{{lang|la|sex}}'', English ''six'', ancient Greek {{lang|grc|ἕξ}} {{IPA|/héks/}}.
* PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|s}} was [[elision|elided]] between vowels after an intermediate step of debuccalization: Sanskrit ''{{IAST|janasas}}'', Latin ''{{lang|la|generis}}'' (where ''s'' > ''r'' by [[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]]), Greek *{{Lang|grc|genesos}} > *{{Lang|grc|genehos}} > ancient Greek {{lang|grc|γένεος}} ({{IPA|/ɡéneos/}}), Attic {{lang|grc|γένους}} ({{IPA|/ɡénoːs/}}) "of a kind".
* PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|y}} {{IPA|/j/}} became {{IPA|/h/}} (debuccalization) or {{IPA|/(d)z/}} ([[fortition]]): Sanskrit ''{{IAST|yas}}'', ancient Greek {{lang|grc|ὅς}} {{IPA|/hós/}} "who" (relative pronoun); Latin ''{{lang|la|iugum}}'', English ''yoke'', ancient Greek {{lang|grc|ζυγός}} {{IPA|/zyɡós/}}.
* PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|w}}, which occurred in [[Mycenaean Greek|Mycenaean]] and some non-Attic dialects, was lost: early Doric {{lang|grc|ϝέργον}} {{IPA|/wérɡon/}}, English ''work'', Attic Greek {{lang|grc|ἔργον}} {{IPA|/érɡon/}}.
* PIE and Mycenaean labiovelars changed to plain stops (labials, dentals, and velars) in the later Greek dialects: for instance, PIE {{lang|ine-x-proto|kʷ}} became {{IPA|/p/}} or {{IPA|/t/}} in Attic: Attic Greek {{lang|grc|ποῦ}} {{IPA|/pôː/}} "where?", Latin ''{{lang|la|quō}}''; Attic Greek {{lang|grc|τίς}} {{IPA|/tís/}}, Latin ''{{lang|la|quis}}'' "who?".
* PIE "voiced aspirated" stops {{lang|ine-x-proto|bʰ dʰ ǵʰ gʰ gʷʰ|proto=no}} were devoiced and became the aspirated stops {{lang|grc|φ θ χ}} {{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}} in ancient Greek.

===Phonemic inventory===
{{main|Ancient Greek phonology}}
The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of [[Modern Greek]]. Ancient Greek had [[vowel length|long and short vowels]]; many [[diphthong]]s; [[gemination|double]] and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated [[stop consonant|stops]]; and a [[pitch accent]]. In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as {{IPA|/i/}} ([[iotacism]]). Some of the stops and [[semivowel|glides]] in diphthongs have become [[fricative consonant|fricatives]], and the pitch accent has changed to a [[stress (linguistics)|stress accent]]. Many of the changes took place in the [[Koine Greek]] period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes.

The examples below represent Attic Greek in the 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent.

====Consonants====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{lang|grc|μ}}<br>{{IPA link|m}}
| {{lang|grc|ν}}<br>{{IPA link|n}}
| {{lang|grc|γ}}<br>({{IPA link|ŋ}})<sup>1</sup>
|
|-
!rowspan=3| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{lang|grc|β}}<br>{{IPA link|b}}
| {{lang|grc|δ}}<br>{{IPA link|d}}
| {{lang|grc|γ}}<br>{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|-
!<small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{lang|grc|π}}<br>{{IPA link|p}}
| {{lang|grc|τ}}<br>{{IPA link|t}}
| {{lang|grc|κ}}<br>{{IPA link|k}}
|
|-
!<small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| {{lang|grc|φ}}<br>{{IPA link|pʰ}}
| {{lang|grc|θ}}<br>{{IPA link|tʰ}}
| {{lang|grc|χ}}<br>{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
| {{lang|grc|σ}}<br>{{IPA link|s}}<sup>2</sup>
|
| <br>{{IPA link|h}}<sup>3</sup>
|-
!colspan=2|[[Approximant]]
| 
| {{lang|grc|λ}}<br>{{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|-
!colspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{lang|grc|ρ}}<br>{{IPA link|r}}<sup>4</sup>
|
|}

:<sup>1</sup> {{IPA|[ŋ]}} occurred as an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/n/}} that was used before velars and as an allophone of {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before nasals.
:<sup>2</sup> {{IPA|/s/}} was assimilated to {{IPA|[z]}} before voiced consonants.
:<sup>3</sup> {{IPA|/h/}} was earlier written {{lang|grc|Η}}, but when the same letter ([[eta]]) was co-opted to stand for a vowel, {{IPA|/h/}} was dropped from writing, to be restored later in the form of a diacritic, the [[rough breathing]].
:<sup>4</sup> {{IPA|/r/}} was probably a voiceless {{IPA link|/r̥/}} when word-initially and [[geminated]] (written {{lang|grc|ῥ}} and {{lang|grc|ῥῥ}}).

====Vowels====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!
! <small>[[Roundedness|unrounded]]</small>
! <small>[[Roundedness|rounded]]</small>
|- align=center
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{lang|grc|ι}}<br>{{IPA link|i}} {{IPA|iː}}
| {{lang|grc|υ}}<br>{{IPA link|y}} {{IPA|yː}}
|
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{lang|grc|ε ει}}<br>{{IPA link|e}} {{IPA|eː}}
|
| {{lang|grc|ο ου}}<br>{{IPA link|o}} {{IPA|oː}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{lang|grc|η}}<br>{{IPA link|ɛː}}
|
| {{lang|grc|ω}}<br>{{IPA link|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{lang|grc|α}}<br>{{IPA link|ä|a}} {{IPA link|ä|aː}}
|}

{{IPA|/oː/}} raised to {{IPA|[uː]}}, probably by the 4th century BC.