Editing Anatolia (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Anatolia}}

===Prehistoric Anatolia===
[[File:Göbeklitepe_Şanlıurfa.jpg|thumb|The [[henge]]s in [[Göbekli Tepe]] were erected as far back as 9600 BC.]]
{{main|Prehistory of Anatolia}}

Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the [[Paleolithic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stiner |first=Mary C. |author2=Kuhn, Steven L. |author3= Güleç, Erksin |title=Early Upper Paleolithic shell beads at Üçağızlı Cave I (Turkey): Technology and the socioeconomic context of ornament life-histories |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=380–98 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.008 |issn=0047-2484 |year=2013 |pmid=23481346|bibcode=2013JHumE..64..380S }}</ref> Neolithic settlements include [[Çatalhöyük]], [[Çayönü]], [[Nevali Cori]], [[Aşıklı Höyük]], [[Boncuklu Höyük]], [[Hacilar]], [[Göbekli Tepe]], [[Norşuntepe]], [[Köşk Höyük]], and [[Yumuktepe]]. Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitehouse |first1=Harvey |last2=Martin |first2=Luther H. |title=Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0621-5 |page=38 |language=en}}</ref> Recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that the [[History of agriculture|spread of agriculture]] from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the [[Pre-modern human migration|migration]] of [[Early European Farmers|early farmers from Anatolia]] about 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange.<ref>{{cite news |last=Curry |first=Andrew |date=August 2019 |title=The first Europeans weren't who you might think |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319032852/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |archive-date=19 March 2021 |work=National Geographic}}</ref> Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived most of their ancestry from local [[Anatolian hunter-gatherers]], suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these hunter-gatherers and not spread by [[demic diffusion]] into the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krause |first1=Johannes |last2=Jeong |first2=Choongwon |last3=Haak |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Posth |first4=Cosimo |last5=Stockhammer |first5=Philipp W. |last6=Mustafaoğlu |first6=Gökhan |last7=Fairbairn |first7=Andrew |last8=Bianco |first8=Raffaela A. |last9=Julia Gresky |date=19 March 2019 |title=Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=1218 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.1218F |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6425003 |pmid=30890703 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Anatolian derived Neolithic Farmers would subsequently spread across Europe, as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brace |first1=Selina |last2=Diekmann |first2=Yoan |last3=Booth |first3=Thomas J. |last4=van Dorp |first4=Lucy |last5=Faltyskova |first5=Zuzana |last6=Rohland |first6=Nadin |last7=Mallick |first7=Swapan |last8=Olalde |first8=Iñigo |last9=Ferry |first9=Matthew |last10=Michel |first10=Megan |last11=Oppenheimer |first11=Jonas |last12=Broomandkhoshbacht |first12=Nasreen |last13=Stewardson |first13=Kristin |last14=Martiniano |first14=Rui |last15=Walsh |first15=Susan |date=15 April 2019 |title=Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |language=en |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=765–771 |doi=10.1038/s41559-019-0871-9 |issn=2397-334X |pmc=6520225 |pmid=30988490|bibcode=2019NatEE...3..765B }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Olalde |first1=Iñigo |last2=Mallick |first2=Swapan |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Villalba-Mouco |first5=Vanessa |last6=Silva |first6=Marina |last7=Dulias |first7=Katharina |last8=Edwards |first8=Ceiridwen J. |last9=Gandini |first9=Francesca |last10=Pala |first10=Maria |last11=Soares |first11=Pedro |last12=Ferrando-Bernal |first12=Manuel |last13=Adamski |first13=Nicole |last14=Broomandkhoshbacht |first14=Nasreen |last15=Cheronet |first15=Olivia |date=15 March 2019 |title=The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years |journal=Science |language=en |volume=363 |issue=6432 |pages=1230–1234 |doi=10.1126/science.aav4040 |issn=0036-8075 |pmc=6436108 |pmid=30872528|bibcode=2019Sci...363.1230O }}</ref> as well as to the [[Maghreb]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simões |first1=Luciana G. |last2=Günther |first2=Torsten |last3=Martínez-Sánchez |first3=Rafael M. |last4=Vera-Rodríguez |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Iriarte |first5=Eneko |last6=Rodríguez-Varela |first6=Ricardo |last7=Bokbot |first7=Youssef |last8=Valdiosera |first8=Cristina |last9=Jakobsson |first9=Mattias |date=15 June 2023 |title=Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=618 |issue=7965 |pages=550–556 |bibcode=2023Natur.618..550S |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06166-6 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=10266975 |pmid=37286608}}</ref> Most modern Europeans derive a significant part of their ancestry from these Neolithic Anatolian farmers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Allentoft |first1=Morten E. |last2=Sikora |first2=Martin |last3=Refoyo-Martínez |first3=Alba |last4=Irving-Pease |first4=Evan K. |last5=Fischer |first5=Anders |last6=Barrie |first6=William |last7=Ingason |first7=Andrés |last8=Stenderup |first8=Jesper |last9=Sjögren |first9=Karl-Göran |last10=Pearson |first10=Alice |last11=Sousa da Mota |first11=Bárbara |last12=Schulz Paulsson |first12=Bettina |last13=Halgren |first13=Alma |last14=Macleod |first14=Ruairidh |last15=Jørkov |first15=Marie Louise Schjellerup |date=11 January 2024 |title=Population genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=625 |issue=7994 |pages=301–311 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06865-0 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=10781627 |pmid=38200295|bibcode=2024Natur.625..301A }}</ref>

[[Neolithic]] Anatolia has been [[Anatolian hypothesis|proposed]] as the [[Urheimat|homeland]] of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], although linguists tend to favour a [[Kurgan hypothesis|later origin]] in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the [[Anatolian languages]], the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indo-European Daughter Languages: Anatolian|url=https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|access-date=26 January 2021|website=www.historyfiles.co.uk|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513212533/https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/AnatoliaLanguage01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Anatolian languages|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|access-date=26 January 2021|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=6 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906190429/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anatolian-languages|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Ancient Anatolia===
{{Main|List of ancient kingdoms of Anatolia|Ancient regions of Anatolia}}

The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during the [[Bronze Age]] and continue throughout the [[Iron Age]]. The most ancient period in the [[history of Anatolia]] spans from the emergence of ancient [[Hattians]], up to the conquest of Anatolia by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the 6th century BCE.

====Hattians and Hurrians====
{{main|Hattians|Hurrians}}

The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were the [[Hattians]] in central Anatolia, and [[Hurrians]] further to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city of [[Hattush]]. Affiliation of [[Hattian language]] remains unclear, while [[Hurrian language]] belongs to a distinctive family of [[Hurro-Urartian languages]]. All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenous [[languages of the Caucasus]] have been proposed,{{sfn|Bryce|2005|p=12}} but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia and [[Mesopotamia]] started to emerge during the period of the [[Akkadian Empire]], and was continued and intensified during the period of the [[Old Assyrian Empire]], between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, dated {{Circa|20th century BCE}}, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of [[Kültepe|Kanesh]], use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.<ref name="Freeman">{{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Charles|title= Egypt, Greece and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999|isbn=978-0198721949}}</ref>{{sfn|Akurgal|2001|p=}}{{sfn|Barjamovic|2011|p=}}

====Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th centuries BCE)====
{{main|Hittites}}
[[File:Sphinx_Gate,_Hattusa_01.jpg|thumb|The Sphinx Gate in [[Hattusa]]]]

Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Hittites]] were centered at [[Hattusa]] (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the [[Hittite language]], or ''nesili'' (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of [[Kültepe|Nesa]] around 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted [[Kurgan theory]] on the [[Proto-Indo-European homeland]], however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European [[ancient Anatolians]]) were themselves relatively recent [[Indo-European migrations|immigrants]] to Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language.

The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamian [[cuneiform script]]. In the Late Bronze Age, [[Hittites#New Kingdom|Hittite New Kingdom]] ({{circa|1650 BCE}}) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest of [[Kizzuwatna]] in the south-east and the defeat of the [[Assuwa league]] in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern [[Syria]], and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal [[Kaskians]], a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced the [[Palaic language|Palaic-speaking]] Indo-Europeans.<ref>Carruba, O. ''Das Palaische. Texte, Grammatik, Lexikon''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1970. StBoT 10</ref> Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of [[Egypt]], [[Assyria]] and the [[Mitanni]].<ref name="Roux">Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq</ref>

The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.<ref name="Roux"/> The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in [[Syria]]. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.<ref name="Georges Roux 1966">Georges Roux, ''Ancient Iraq''. Penguin Books, 1966. {{ISBN?}}</ref>

====Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th centuries BCE)====
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| caption1 = The [[Theatre at Halicarnassus]] (modern [[Bodrum]]) was built in the 4th century BC by [[Mausolus]], the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] [[satrap]] (governor) of [[Caria#Persian satrapy|Caria]]. The [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]] was one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].<ref name=history>{{cite web | title = History of the Past: World History | url = http://worldhistory.byethost8.com/}}</ref><ref name=seven>{{cite web | title = The Seven Wonders | author = Paul Lunde | date = May–June 1980 | publisher = Saudi Aramco World | url = http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198003/the.seven.wonders.htm | access-date = 12 September 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091013125703/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198003/the.seven.wonders.htm | archive-date = 13 October 2009 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
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| caption2 = The [[Library of Celsus]] in [[Ephesus]] was built by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in 114–117.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Celsus_Library/|title=Celsus Library|publisher=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|author=Mark Cartwright|access-date=2 February 2017}}</ref> The [[Temple of Artemis]] in Ephesus, built by king [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]] in the 6th century BC, was one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=17 February 2017}}</ref>
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After 1180 BCE, during the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], the Hittite Empire disintegrated into several independent [[Syro-Hittite states]], subsequent to losing much territory to the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] and being finally overrun by the [[Phrygians]], another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the [[Balkans]]. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.<ref name="Georges Roux 1966"/>

:'''Luwians'''
Another Indo-European people, the [[Luwians]], rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia {{circa|2000}} BCE. [[Luwian language|Their language]] belonged to the same linguistic branch as [[Hittite language|Hittite]].<ref>Melchert 2003</ref> The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) [[Wilusa]] ([[Troy]]), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the [[Gediz River|Hermos]] and/or [[Bakırçay|Kaikos]] valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.<ref>Watkins 1994; id. 1995:144–51; Starke 1997; Melchert 2003; for the geography Hawkins 1998</ref> From the 9th century BCE, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as [[Lydia]], [[Caria]], and [[Lycia]], all of which had [[Greece|Hellenic]] influence.

:'''Arameans'''
'''[[Arameans]]''' encroached over the borders of south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as [[Syro-Hittite states]].

:'''Neo-Assyrian Empire'''
[[File:Uchisar Castle.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Fairy chimneys in [[Cappadocia]]]]

From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia (particularly the southeastern regions) fell to the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]], including all of the [[Syro-Hittite states]], [[Tabal (state)|Tabal]], [[Commagene]], the [[Cimmerians]] and [[Scythians]], and swathes of [[Cappadocia]].

The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], Scythians and their own [[Babylonia]]n relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was [[Harran]] in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of [[Babylon]], the Assyrian [[Nabonidus]] and his son and regent [[Belshazzar]]. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based [[Medes|Median Empire]], with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.

:'''Cimmerian and Scythian invasions'''
From the late 8th century BCE, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the [[Cimmerians]] and [[Scythians]]. The Cimmerians overran [[Phrygia]] and the Scythians threatened to do the same to [[Urartu]] and [[Lydia]], before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.

:'''Early Greek presence'''
{{multiple image
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| footer = The [[Sebasteion]] (left) and [[Tetrapylon]] (right) in [[Aphrodisias]] of [[Caria]], which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 2017.
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The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the [[Achaeans (tribe)|Achaean]]/[[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] culture from the 20th century BCE, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Carl Roebuck, ''The World of Ancient Times''</ref> Beginning with the [[Bronze Age collapse]] at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by [[Ionian Greeks]], usurping the area of the related but earlier [[Mycenaean Greeks]]. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek [[city-state]]s were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia ([[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]).<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

===Classical Anatolia===
{{main|Classical Anatolia}}

In [[Classical antiquity]], Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historian [[Herodotus]] and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.<ref name=yavuz>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0195170726| last = Yavuz| first = Mehmet Fatih| title = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome| chapter = Anatolia| access-date = 5 December 2018| date = 2010| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001| archive-date = 6 December 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102239/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-61| url-status = live}}</ref> The northern regions included [[Bithynia]], [[Paphlagonia]], and [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]; to the west were [[Mysia]], [[Lydia]], and Caria; and [[Lycia]], [[Pamphylia]], and [[Cilicia]] belonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions: [[Phrygia]], [[Cappadocia]], [[Pisidia]], and [[Galatia]].<ref name=yavuz /> Languages spoken included the late surviving [[Anatolic languages]], [[Isaurian language|Isaurian]],<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|title=Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices|last=Honey|first=Linda|isbn=978-1351875745|page=50|chapter=Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian Incident of Ammianus Marcellinus|date=5 December 2016|publisher=Routledge |access-date=8 November 2020|archive-date=19 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519052917/https://books.google.com/books?id=5geoDQAAQBAJ&q=isaurian%20personal%20names&pg=PT64|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Pisidian language|Pisidian]], Greek in western and coastal regions, [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] spoken until the 7th century CE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Swain|first1=Simon|last2=Adams|first2=J. Maxwell|last3=Janse|first3=Mark|title=Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2002 |pages=246–66|isbn=0199245061}}</ref> local variants of [[Thracian]] in the northwest, the [[Galatian language|Galatian variant of Gaulish]] in [[Galatia]] until the 6th century CE,<ref>Freeman, Philip, ''The Galatian Language'', Edwin Mellen, 2001, pp. 11–12.</ref><ref>Clackson, James. "Language maintenance and language shift in the Mediterranean world during the Roman Empire." Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (2012): 36–57. p. 46: The second testimonium for the late survival of Galatian appears in the Life of Saint Euthymius, who died in ad 487.</ref><ref>Norton, Tom. [https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102201528/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/402/1/TOM%20NORTON.pdf|archive-date=9 October 2022|url-status=live|date=2 November 2018}} | A question of identity: who were the Galatians?. University of Wales. p. 62: The final reference to Galatian comes two hundred years later in the sixth century CE when Cyril of Scythopolis attests that Galatian was still being spoken eight hundred years after the Galatians arrived in Asia Minor. Cyril tells of the temporary possession of a monk from Galatia by Satan and rendered speechless, but when he recovered he spoke only in his native Galatian when questioned: 'If he were pressed, he spoke only in Galatian'.180 After this, the rest is silence, and further archaeological or literary discoveries are awaited to see if Galatian survived any later. In this regard, the example of Crimean Gothic is instructive. It was presumed to have died out in the fifth century CE, but the discovery of a small corpus of the language dating from the sixteenth century altered this perception.</ref> [[Ancient Cappadocian language|Cappadocian]] in the homonymous region,<ref>J. Eric Cooper, Michael J. Decker, ''Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia'' {{ISBN|0230361064}}, p. 14</ref> [[Armenian language|Armenian]] in the east, and [[Kartvelian languages]] in the northeast.

Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted [[coin]]age (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in [[Mesopotamia]] at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the [[Hellenistic period|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] eras.<ref>{{Cite book|isbn=978-0415089920|last=Howgego|first=C. J.|title=Ancient History from Coins|author-link=Christopher Howgego| year=1995|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>[http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200317151148/https://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ |date=17 March 2020 }} – an index of Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (ancient Anatolia)</ref>

During the 6th century BCE, all of Anatolia was conquered by the [[Persia]]n [[Achaemenid Empire]], the Persians having usurped the [[Medes]] as the [[List of monarchs of Persia|dominant dynasty of Persia]]. In 499 BCE, the [[Ionia]]n city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The [[Ionian Revolt]], as it became known, though quelled, initiated the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BCE, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By the [[Peace of Antalcidas]] (387 BCE), which ended the [[Corinthian War]], Persia regained control over Ionia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dandamaev |first1=M. A. |author-link1=Muhammad Dandamayev |title=A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |date=1989 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004091726 |page=294}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = ARTAXERXES II | last = Schmitt | first = R. | author-link = Rüdiger Schmitt | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6 | pages = 656–58 | year = 1986 | access-date = 21 April 2019 | archive-date = 9 April 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190409011010/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/artaxerxes-ii-achaemenid-king | url-status = live }}</ref>

In 334 BCE, the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] Greek king [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the Anatolian peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roisman|first1=Joseph|last2=Worthington|first2=Ian|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|year=2010|isbn=978-1405179362|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=16 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200416185650/https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC|url-status=live}}</ref> Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.
[[File:Nemrut Dağı 12.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Sanctuary of the Kings of [[Commagene]] on [[Mount Nemrut]] (1st century BCE)]] Following the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent breakup of the [[Macedonian Empire]], Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the [[Attalid dynasty|Attalids of Pergamum]] and the [[Seleucids]], the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful [[Hellenization]] followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE. In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the [[Roman Republic]]; western and central Anatolia came under [[Romanization of Anatolia|Roman control]], but [[Hellenistic culture]] remained predominant.

[[Mithridates VI Eupator]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Pontus]] in northern Anatolia, waged war against the [[Roman Republic]] in the year 88 BCE in order to halt the advance of Roman [[hegemony]] in the [[Aegean Sea]] region. Mithridates VI sought to dominate Asia Minor and the [[Black Sea]] region, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (the [[Mithridatic Wars]]) to break Roman dominion over Asia and the [[Hellenic world]].<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mithradates-VI-Eupator Mithradates VI Eupator]", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref> He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hewsen|first=Robert H.|title=Armenian Pontus: The Trebizond-Black Sea Communities|year=2009|publisher=Mazda Publishers, Inc.|location=Costa Mesa, CA|isbn=978-1-56859-155-1|pages=41, 37–66|editor=Richard G. Hovannisian|chapter=Armenians on the Black Sea: The Province of Trebizond}}</ref> Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by [[Pompey]], brought all of Anatolia under [[Romanization of Anatolia|Roman control]], except for the southeastern frontier with the [[Parthian Empire]], which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the [[Roman–Parthian Wars]] (54 BCE – 217 CE).

===Early Christian period===
{{Main|Christianity as the Roman state religion|Spread of Christianity}}
{{Further|Christianity in late antiquity|Crisis of the Third Century}}

[[File:Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png|thumb|upright=1.1|{{legend|#b23938|[[Roman Empire]] in 117 CE at its greatest extent, at the time of [[Trajan]]'s death.}} {{legend|#d28989|[[vassal state]]s<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bennett, Julian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qk_tofvS8EsC |title=Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-415-16524-2}}. Fig. 1. Regions east of the [[Euphrates]] river were held only in the years 116–117.</ref>}}]]
[[File:Seven churches of asia.svg|thumb|331x331px|The [[Seven churches of Asia]]]]
After the [[first division of the Roman Empire]], Anatolia became part of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]], otherwise known as the Byzantine Empire or [[Byzantium]].<ref name="Niewöhner 2017">{{cite book |author-last=Niewöhner |author-first=Philipp |year=2017 |chapter=Chapter 3: Urbanism – The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgUmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39 |editor-last=Niewöhner |editor-first=Philipp |title=The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia: From the End of Late Antiquity until the Coming of the Turks |location=[[Oxford]] and New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=39–59 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190610463.003.0004 |isbn=9780190610487}}</ref> In the 1st century CE, Anatolia became [[History of early Christianity|one of the first places where Christianity spread]], so that by the 4th century CE, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking.<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/>

Byzantine Anatolia was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the [[Later Roman Empire]]. Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to the [[Pilgrim's Road]] that ran through the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the [[Hagiography|Christian hagiographies]] of the 6th-century [[Nicholas of Sion]] and 7th-century [[Theodore of Sykeon]]. Large and prosperous urban centers of Byzantine Anatolia included [[Assos]], [[Ephesus]], [[Miletus]], [[Nicaea]], [[Pergamum]], [[Priene]], [[Sardis]], and [[Aphrodisias]].<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/>

From the mid-5th century onwards, urbanism was affected negatively and began to decline, while the rural areas reached unprecedented levels of prosperity in the region.<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/> Historians and scholars continue to debate the cause of the urban decline in Byzantine Anatolia between the 6th and 7th centuries,<ref name="Niewöhner 2017"/> variously attributing it to the [[Plague of Justinian]] (541), the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628|Byzantine–Sasanian War]] (602–628), and the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant|Arab invasion of the Levant]] (634–638).<ref name=thonemann>{{Cite book| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0198662778| last = Thonemann| first = Peter| title = The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity| volume = 1| chapter = Anatolia| access-date = 6 December 2018| year = 2018| chapter-url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-241| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001| archive-date = 6 December 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181206102258/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-241| url-status = live}}</ref>

===Medieval period===
{{further|Byzantine Anatolia}}
{{see also|List of states in late medieval Anatolia}}
[[File:Asia Minor ca 842 AD.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|[[Byzantine Anatolia]] and the [[Arab–Byzantine wars|Byzantine-Arab frontier zone]] in the mid-9th century]]

In the 10 years following the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the [[Seljuk Turks]] from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204 |last=Angold |first=Michael |year=1997 |isbn=978-0582294684 |page=117|publisher=Longman }}</ref> The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rûm]], with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.<ref name=Balyuzi/>
[[File:11 13th century Asia Minor Turkish Invasions.png|thumb|Settlements and regions affected during the first wave of [[Byzantine–Seljuk wars|Turkish invasions]] in Asia Minor (11th–13th century)]]
In 1255, the [[Mongols]] swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The [[Ilkhanate]] garrison was stationed near [[Ankara]].<ref name=Balyuzi>H. M. Balyuzi ''Muḥammad and the course of Islám'', p. 342</ref><ref>John Freely ''Storm on Horseback: The Seljuk Warriors of Turkey'', p. 83</ref> After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, the [[Mongol Empire]]'s legacy in the region was the [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] [[Eretna Dynasty]] that was overthrown by [[Kadi Burhan al-Din]] in 1381.<ref>Clifford Edmund Bosworth-The new Islamic dynasties: a chronological and genealogical manual, p. 234</ref>

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various [[Anatolian beyliks]]. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, [[Alaşehir|Philadelphia]], [[Fall of Philadelphia|fell in 1390]]. The [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.<ref>Mehmet Fuat Köprülü, Gary Leiser-The origins of the Ottoman Empire, p. 33</ref><ref>Peter Partner ''God of battles: holy wars of Christianity and Islam'', p. 122</ref> The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the [[Mongol]] [[Ilkhanids]].<ref>''Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire'', p. 13</ref> The [[Osmanli]] ruler [[Osman I]] was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul".<ref>Artuk – ''Osmanli Beyliginin Kurucusu'', 27f</ref> Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a [[Sovereignty|sovereign]], it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.<ref>Pamuk – ''A Monetary History'', pp. 30–31</ref>

===Ottoman Empire===
{{further|Ottoman Empire}}

[[File:Growth of the Ottoman Empire.jpg|thumb|[[Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire]] between 1359 and 1683]]
Among the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] leaders, the [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottomans]] emerged as great power under [[Osman I]] and his son [[Orhan]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|title=Osman I {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|title=Orhan {{!}} Ottoman sultan|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=10 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180310140006/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Orhan|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Anatolian beyliks]] were successively absorbed into the rising [[Ottoman Empire]] during the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|title=The rise of the Ottomans (Chapter 11) – The New Cambridge History of Islam|pages=313–31|last=Fleet|first=Kate|publisher=Cambridge Core|language=en|access-date=23 April 2018|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521839570.013|chapter=The rise of the Ottomans|year=2010|isbn=978-1139056151|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424071602/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-islam/rise-of-the-ottomans/015D10BC98EA8A2D69B29D54AC7241CC|url-status=live}}</ref> It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |year=2007 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0465008506 |page=5 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102002603/http://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of [[Halicarnassus]] (modern [[Bodrum]]) from the [[Knights of Saint John]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus|title=Halicarnassus |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |orig-date=15 December 2003 |date=1 March 2012 |first1=Bruno |last1=Genito |access-date=23 April 2018|archive-date=24 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424071811/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/halicarnassus|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Modern times===
{{further|History of Turkey}}
[[File:The Historical Atlas, 1911 – Distribution of Races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor.jpg|thumb|Ethnic map of Asia Minor in 1905–06]]
With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of the [[Russian Empire]] in the [[Caucasus]], many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly [[Circassians]], [[Tatars]], [[Azeris]], [[Lezgian people|Lezgis]], [[Chechens]] and several [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the [[Balkan]] regions and then fragmented during the [[Balkan Wars]], much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims ([[Bosniaks]], [[Albanians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Pomaks|Muslim Bulgarians]] and [[Greek Muslims]] such as the [[Vallahades]] from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Greek Macedonia]]), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.
[[File:St. Polycarp Kilisesi (2).jpg|left|thumb|181x181px|St. Polycarp Church, in modern-day [[İzmir|Izmir]].]]
A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, [[Constantinople]] and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent [[Kingdom of Greece]], and also towards the [[United States]], the southern part of the [[Russian Empire]], Latin America, and the rest of Europe.
[[File:Ankara and mosque wza.jpg|thumb|Mosque in [[Ankara]]]]
Following the Russo-Persian [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] (1828) and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.<ref name="Swietochowski Borderland">{{cite book |last=Swietochowski |first=Tadeusz |author-link=Tadeusz Swietochowski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FfRYRwAACAAJ&q=Russia+and+Iran+in+the+great+game:+travelogues+and+orientalism |title=Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-231-07068-3 |pages=69, 133}}</ref>

Anatolia remained [[multi-ethnic]] until the early 20th century (see the [[rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). During World War I, the [[Armenian genocide]], the [[Greek genocide]] (especially in [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]]), and the [[Assyrian genocide]] almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of [[Armenians|Armenian]], [[Greeks|Greek]], and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the [[Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922]], most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]]. Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-07 |title=The uncertain future of Greeks in Turkey |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/09/07/the-uncertain-future-of-greeks-in-turkey#selection-1030.0-1030.1 |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=archive.is |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230907151019/https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/09/07/the-uncertain-future-of-greeks-in-turkey#selection-1030.0-1030.1 |archive-date=2023-09-07}}</ref> According to Morris and Ze'evi, 4 million Christians were ethnically cleansed from Asia minor by the Turks from 1894 to 1924.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Benny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&q=Benny+Morris+the+thirty+year+genocide |title=The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 |last2=Ze'evi |first2=Dror |date=2019-04-24 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-91645-6 |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref>