Editing Agriculture (section)

=== Civilizations ===
[[File:Centres of origin and spread of agriculture.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1078208 |last1=Diamond |first1=J. |author-link1=Jared Diamond |last2=Bellwood |first2=P. |title=Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5619 |pages=597–603 |year=2003 |pmid=12714734 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..597D |citeseerx=10.1.1.1013.4523 |s2cid=13350469}}</ref> DNA studies have shown that agriculture was introduced in [[Neolithic Europe|Europe]] by the expansion of the [[Early European Farmers|early farmers from Anatolia]] about 9,000 years ago.
<ref>{{cite news |title=When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-the-first-farmers-arrived-in-europe-inequality-evolved/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=28 October 2022 |archive-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525055649/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-the-first-farmers-arrived-in-europe-inequality-evolved/ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]
In Eurasia, the [[Sumer]]ians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in [[pictograph]]s around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.<ref name=BritMus>{{cite web |title=Farming |url=http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |publisher=[[British Museum]] |access-date=15 June 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616222522/http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/staff/resources/background/bg08/home.html |archive-date=16 June 2016}}</ref> [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture]] relied on the [[Nile River]] and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the [[Paleolithic]], after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as [[flax]] and [[papyrus]].<ref name=Janick>{{cite journal |author=Janick, Jules |title=Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture |journal=Acta Hort. |volume=583 |pages=23–39 |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec06.pdf |access-date=1 April 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525073834/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Hort_306/text/lec06.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Kees, Herman |title=Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptcult0000kees |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1961 |isbn=978-0226429144}}</ref> In [[Agriculture in India|India]], wheat, barley and [[jujube]] were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.<ref name=gupta>{{cite journal |author=Gupta, Anil K. |title=Origin of agriculture and domestication of plants and animals linked to early Holocene climate amelioration |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/21961/1/333.pdf |journal=Current Science |volume=87 |issue=1 |year=2004 |page=59 |jstor=24107979 |access-date=23 April 2019 |archive-date=20 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120003139/http://repository.ias.ac.in/21961/1/333.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in [[Mehrgarh]] culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.<ref name=Baber>Baber, Zaheer (1996). ''The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India''. State University of New York Press. 19. {{ISBN|0-7914-2919-9}}.</ref><ref name=harrisandgosden385>Harris, David R. and Gosden, C. (1996). ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia: Crops, Fields, Flocks And Herds''. Routledge. p. 385. {{ISBN|1-85728-538-7}}.</ref><ref name=Possehl>Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', Ed. Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press.</ref> Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.<ref>Stein, Burton (1998). ''A History of India''. Blackwell Publishing. p. 47. {{ISBN|0-631-20546-2}}.</ref> Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn [[plough]] from 2,500 BC in the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]].<ref name=lal>{{Cite journal |title=Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000 |first=R. |last=Lal |journal=Soil and Tillage Research |volume=61 |issue=1–2 |date=2001 |pages=3–12 |doi=10.1016/S0167-1987(01)00184-2 |bibcode=2001STilR..61....3L}}</ref>
In China, from the 5th century BC, there was a nationwide [[granary]] system and widespread [[sericulture|silk farming]].<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 6, Part 2, pp. 55–57.</ref> Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, pp. 89, 110, 184.</ref> followed by irrigation.<ref>[[#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 110.</ref> By the late 2nd century, [[heavy plough]]s had been developed with iron ploughshares and [[mouldboard]]s.<ref name="greenberger 2006 11-12">Greenberger, Robert (2006) ''The Technology of Ancient China'', Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|1404205586}}</ref><ref>[[Wang Zhongshu]], trans. by K. C. Chang and Collaborators, ''Han Civilization'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982).</ref> These spread westwards across Eurasia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA270 |author=Glick, Thomas F. |page=270 |title=Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-96930-7 |series=Volume 11 of The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Series |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035807/https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA270 |url-status=live}}</ref> Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the [[molecular clock]] estimate that is used<ref name="pnas1">{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=J. |last2=Sikora |first2=M. |last3=Garud |first3=N. |last4=Flowers |first4=J. M. |last5=Rubinstein |first5=S. |last6=Reynolds |first6=A. |last7=Huang |first7=P. |last8=Jackson |first8=S. |last9=Schaal |first9=B. A. |last10=Bustamante |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104686108 |first10=C. D. |last11=Boyko |first11=A. R. |last12=Purugganan |first12=M. D. |title=Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=20 |pages=8351–8356 |year=2011 |pmid=21536870 |pmc=3101000 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8351M |doi-access=free}}</ref>– on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice ''[[Oryza rufipogon]]''.<ref name="nature1">{{cite journal |title=A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature11532 |year=2012 |last1=Huang |first1=Xuehui |last2=Kurata |first2=Nori |last3=Wei |first3=Xinghua |last4=Wang |first4=Zi-Xuan |last5=Wang |first5=Ahong |last6=Zhao |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Yan |last8=Liu |first8=Kunyan |last9=Lu |first9=Hengyun |last10=Li |first10=Wenjun |last11=Gu |first11=Yunli |last12=Lu |first12=Yiqi |last13=Zhou |first13=Congcong |last14=Fan |first14=Danlin |last15=Weng |first15=Qijun |last16=Zhu |first16=Chuanrang |last17=Huang |first17=Tao |last18=Zhang |first18=Lei |last19=Wang |first19=Yongchun |last20=Feng |first20=Lei |last21=Furuumi |first21=Hiroyasu |last22=Kubo |first22=Takahiko |last23=Miyabayashi |first23=Toshie |last24=Yuan |first24=Xiaoping |last25=Xu |first25=Qun |last26=Dong |first26=Guojun |last27=Zhan |first27=Qilin |last28=Li |first28=Canyang |last29=Fujiyama |first29=Asao|last30=Toyoda |first30=Atsushi |volume=490 |issue=7421 |pages=497–501 |pmid=23034647 |pmc=7518720 |display-authors=8 |bibcode=2012Natur.490..497H |doi-access=free}}</ref> In [[Agriculture in ancient Greece|Greece<!--this is the only link to Agr of ancient Greece-->]] and [[Agriculture in ancient Rome|Rome<!--this is the only link to Agr of ancient Rome-->]], the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.<ref name="koester 1995 p76-77">Koester, Helmut (1995), ''History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age'', 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 76–77. {{ISBN|3-11-014693-2}}</ref><ref name="White">White, K. D. (1970), ''Roman Farming''. Cornell University Press.</ref>[[File:Tomb of Nakht (2).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Agricultural scenes of [[threshing]], a grain store, harvesting with [[sickle]]s, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from [[Ancient Egyptian agriculture|ancient Egypt]]. Tomb of [[Nakht]], 15th century BC]]

In the Americas, crops domesticated in [[Mesoamerica]] (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]].<ref name="Murphy2011">{{cite book |author=Murphy, Denis |title=Plants, Biotechnology and Agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etQsieKuRH8C&pg=PA153 |year=2011 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-913-7 |page=153 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035817/https://books.google.com/books?id=etQsieKuRH8C&pg=PA153 |url-status=live}}</ref> Cocoa was domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Davis |first1=Nicola |title=Origin of chocolate shifts 1,400 miles and 1,500 years |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/29/origin-of-chocolate-shifts-1400-miles-and-1500-years-cacao-ecuador |access-date=31 October 2018 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=29 October 2018 |archive-date=30 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030234709/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/29/origin-of-chocolate-shifts-1400-miles-and-1500-years-cacao-ecuador |url-status=live}}</ref>
The [[domestic turkey|turkey]] was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.<ref name="Speller">{{cite journal |last1=Speller |first1=Camilla F. |author-link1=Camilla Speller |display-authors=etal |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication |journal=PNAS |date=2010 |volume=107 |issue=7 |pages=2807–2812 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909724107 |pmid=20133614 |pmc=2840336 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2807S |doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[Aztec]]s developed irrigation systems, formed [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed [[chinampa]]s or artificial islands. The [[Maya civilization|Mayas]] used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html |title=Mayans converted wetlands to farmland |author=Mascarelli, Amanda |journal=Nature |date=5 November 2010 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.587 |access-date=17 May 2013 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423014836/https://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Invisible Artifacts: Uncovering Secrets of Ancient Maya Agriculture with Modern Soil Science |journal=Soil Horizons |author=Morgan, John |date=6 November 2013 |doi=10.2136/sh2012-53-6-lf |volume=53 |issue=6 |page=3 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Spooner 2005 14694–99">{{cite journal |title=A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping |last1=Spooner |first1=David M. |first2=Karen |last2=McLean |first3=Gavin |last3=Ramsay |first4=Robbie |last4=Waugh |first5=Glenn J. |last5=Bryan |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=102 |issue=41 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0507400102 |pmc=1253605 |pages=14694–14699 |pmid=16203994 |year=2005 |bibcode=2005PNAS..10214694S |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="online">{{cite book |author=Office of International Affairs |title=Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation |date=1989 |url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92 |via=National Academies.org |isbn=978-0-309-04264-2 |page=92 |doi=10.17226/1398 |access-date=1 April 2018 |archive-date=2 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202134137/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="John Michael Francis 2005">{{cite book |author=Francis, John Michael |author1-link=J. Michael Francis |title=Iberia and the Americas |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA867 |isbn=978-1-85109-426-4 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035809/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA867 |url-status=live}}</ref> In South America agriculture may have begun about 9000 BC with the domestication of [[Squash (fruit)|squash]] (Cucurbita) and other plants.<ref name="Piperno">{{cite journal |last1=Piperno |first1=Dolores R. |title=The Origin of Plant Cultivation and Domestication in the New World Tropics: Pattern, Process, and New Developments |journal=Current Anthropology |date=2011 |volume=52 |issue=S-4 |pages=S453–S470 |doi=10.1086/659998 |s2cid=83061925 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/659998 |access-date=16 November 2023 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019093231/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/659998 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Coca]] was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and [[pineapple]].<ref name="Murphy2011" /> Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.<ref name="Broudy1979 p81">{{cite book |last=Broudy |first=Eric |title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81 |year=1979 |publisher=UPNE |isbn=978-0-87451-649-4 |page=81 |access-date=10 February 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035756/https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81 |url-status=live}}</ref> Animals including [[llama]]s, [[alpaca]]s, and [[guinea pig]]s were domesticated there.<ref name="RischkowskyPilling2007">{{cite book |last1=Rischkowsky |first1=Barbara |last2=Pilling |first2=Dafydd |title=The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Skpj197tU0oC |page=10 }} |year=2007 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Organization |isbn=978-92-5-105762-9 |page=10}}</ref> In [[History of agriculture in the United States|North America]], the indigenous people of the [[Eastern Agricultural Complex|East domesticated crops]] such as [[sunflower]], tobacco,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heiser |first1=Carl B. Jr. |year=1992 |title=On possible sources of the tobacco of prehistoric Eastern North America |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=33 |pages=54–56 |doi=10.1086/204032 |s2cid=144433864}}</ref> squash and ''[[Chenopodium]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ford, Richard I. |page=75 |title=Prehistoric Food Production in North América |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeuzAAAAIAAJ |year=1985 |publisher=University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Publications Department |isbn=978-0-915703-01-2}}</ref><ref>Adair, Mary J. (1988) ''Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains.'' Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence.</ref> Wild foods including [[wild rice]] and [[maple sugar]] were harvested.<ref name="Smith2013">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Andrew |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973496-2 |page=1 |access-date=10 February 2019}}</ref> The domesticated [[strawberry]] is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hardigan |first1=Michael A. |title=P0653: Domestication History of Strawberry: Population Bottlenecks and Restructuring of Genetic Diversity through Time |journal=PAG - Plant and Animal Genome XXVI Conference (January 13 - 17, 2018) |url=https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409 |publisher=Pland & Animal Genome Conference XXVI 13–17 January 2018 San Diego, California |access-date=28 February 2018 |archive-date=1 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164429/https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Agriculture in the prehistoric Southwest|indigenous people of the Southwest]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]] practiced [[forest gardening]] and [[fire-stick farming]]. The [[Native American use of fire|natives controlled fire]] on a regional scale to create a low-intensity [[fire ecology]] that [[Sustainable agriculture|sustained a low-density agriculture]] in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" [[permaculture]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Fire in California's Ecosystems |url=https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi |url-access=limited |editor1=Sugihara, Neil G. |editor2=Van Wagtendonk, Jan W. |editor3=Shaffer, Kevin E. |editor4=Fites-Kaufman, Joann |editor5=Thode, Andrea E. |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi/page/n433 417] |chapter=17 |isbn=978-0-520-24605-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor=Blackburn, Thomas C. |editor2=Anderson, Kat |year=1993 |title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians |publisher=Ballena Press |isbn=978-0-87919-126-9}}</ref><ref name="Cunningham2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |pages=135, 173–202 |last=Cunningham |first=Laura |title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California |publisher=Heyday |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-59714-136-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=M. Kat |title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources |url=https://archive.org/details/tendingwildnativ0000ande |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-520-24851-9}}</ref> A system of [[companion planting]] called [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|the Three Sisters]] was developed in North America. The three crops were [[winter squash]], maize, and climbing beans.<ref name="wilson">{{cite book |title=Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation |last=Wilson |first=Gilbert |year=1917 |publisher=Dodo Press |isbn=978-1-4099-4233-7 |pages=25 and passim |url=http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |ref=wilson1917 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055513/http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press |archive-date=14 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="landon">{{cite journal |last=Landon |first=Amanda J. |title=The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |year=2008 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |pages=110–124 |access-date=1 April 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054240/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Indigenous Australians]], long supposed to have been nomadic [[hunter-gatherers]], practiced systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jones |first=R. |doi=10.1007/BF03400623 |title=Fire-stick Farming |journal=Fire Ecology |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=3–8 |year=2012 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012FiEco...8c...3J}}</ref> Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wild [[karuka]] fruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowley-Conwy |first1=Peter |last2=Layton |first2=Robert |title=Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1566 |date=27 March 2011 |issn=0962-8436 |pmid=21320899 |pmc=3048996 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0307 |pages=849–862}}</ref>

The [[Gunditjmara]] and other groups developed [[eel]] farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=1988 |title=Complex Hunter-Gatherers: A Late Holocene Example from Temperate Australia |journal=Archaeopress Archaeology |volume=423}}</ref> There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lourandos |first=Harry |year=1997 |title=Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.<ref name=b1 /><ref>{{cite book |last=Gammage |first=Bill |author-link=Bill Gammage |date=October 2011 |title=The Biggest Estate on Earth: How Aborigines made Australia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aUddY9fGkNMC |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-748-3 |pages=281–304 |access-date=18 February 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035807/https://books.google.com/books?id=aUddY9fGkNMC |url-status=live}}</ref>