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Évariste Galois
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=== Political firebrand === [[File:Révolution de 1830 - Combat devant l'hôtel de ville - 28.07.1830.jpg|thumb|right|''Battle for the Town Hall'' by [[Jean-Victor Schnetz]]. Galois, as a staunch republican, would have wanted to participate in the [[July Revolution]] of 1830 but was prevented by the director of the École Normale.]] Galois lived during a time of political turmoil in France. [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] had succeeded [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] in 1824, but in 1827 [[Ultra-royalist|his party]] suffered a [[1827 French legislative election|major electoral setback]] and by 1830 the [[Doctrinaires|opposition liberal party]] [[1830 French legislative election|became the majority]]. Charles, faced with political opposition from the chambers, staged a coup d'état, and issued his notorious [[July Ordinances]], touching off the [[July Revolution]]<ref name=":2" /> which ended with [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe]] becoming king. While their counterparts at the [[École Polytechnique|Polytechnique]] were making history in the streets, Galois, at the [[École Normale]], was locked in by the school's director. Galois was incensed and wrote a blistering letter criticizing the director, which he submitted to the ''Gazette des Écoles'', signing the letter with his full name. Although the ''Gazette''{{'}}s editor omitted the signature for publication, Galois was expelled.<ref name="dupuy">{{cite journal | last = Dupuy | first = Paul | title = La vie d'Évariste Galois | journal = Annales Scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure | volume = 13 | pages = 197–266 | url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Livre:Dupuy_-_La_vie_d'%C3%89variste_Galois.djvu | year= 1896 | doi = 10.24033/asens.427 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Although his expulsion would have formally taken effect on 4 January 1831, Galois quit school immediately and joined the staunchly Republican artillery unit of the [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]]. He divided his time between his mathematical work and his political affiliations. Due to controversy surrounding the unit, soon after Galois became a member, on 31 December 1830, the artillery of the National Guard was disbanded out of fear that they might destabilize the government. At around the same time, nineteen officers of Galois's former unit were arrested and charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government. In April 1831, the officers were acquitted of all charges, and on 9 May 1831, a banquet was held in their honor, with many illustrious people present, such as [[Alexandre Dumas, père|Alexandre Dumas]]. The proceedings grew riotous. At some point, Galois stood and proposed a [[Toast (honor)|toast]] in which he said, "To [[Louis Philippe I|Louis Philippe]]," with a [[dagger]] above his cup. The republicans at the banquet interpreted Galois's toast as a threat against the king's life and cheered. He was arrested the following day at his mother's house and held in detention at [[Sainte-Pélagie Prison|Sainte-Pélagie prison]] until 15 June 1831, when he had his trial.<ref name="rothman" /> Galois's defense lawyer cleverly claimed that Galois actually said, "To Louis-Philippe, ''if he betrays''," but that the qualifier was drowned out in the cheers. The prosecutor asked a few more questions, and perhaps influenced by Galois's youth, the jury acquitted him that same day.<ref name="rothman" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name="dupuy" /><ref name="dumas">{{cite book | last = Dumas (père) | first = Alexandre | title = Mes Mémoires | isbn = 978-1-4371-5595-2 | chapter = CCIV | chapter-url = http://www.dumaspere.com/pages/bibliotheque/chapitre.php?lid=m3&cid=204 | access-date = 13 April 2010}}</ref> On the following [[Bastille Day]] (14 July 1831), Galois was at the head of a protest, wearing the uniform of the disbanded artillery, and came heavily armed with several pistols, a loaded rifle, and a dagger. He was again arrested.<ref name=":2" /> During his stay in prison, Galois at one point drank alcohol for the first time at the goading of his fellow inmates. One of these inmates, [[François-Vincent Raspail]], recorded what Galois said while drunk in a letter from 25 July. Excerpted from the letter:<ref name="rothman" /> {{Blockquote|text=And I tell you, I will die in a duel on the occasion of some <em>coquette de bas étage</em>. Why? Because she will invite me to avenge her honor which another has compromised.<br> Do you know what I lack, my friend? I can confide it only to you: it is someone whom I can love and love only in spirit. I've lost my father and no one has ever replaced him, do you hear me...?|title=|author=|source=}} Raspail continues that Galois, still in a delirium, attempted suicide, and that he would have succeeded if his fellow inmates had not forcibly stopped him.<ref name="rothman" /> Months later, when Galois's trial occurred on 23 October, he was sentenced to six months in prison for illegally wearing a uniform.<ref name=":2" /><ref name="bell">{{cite book | last = Bell | first = Eric Temple | title = Men of Mathematics | publisher = Simon and Schuster | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-671-62818-5}}</ref><ref name="escofier" /> While in prison, he continued to develop his mathematical ideas. He was released on 29 April 1832.
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