Editing Taiwanese indigenous peoples (section)

==Genetics==
A 2021 study shows strong genetic affinities between Ami and Yami and the [[Igorots]] of Philippines. The Ami and Yami also share IBD segments with the East Polynesians of [[Society Islands|Society Archipelago]], which are relatively long on average. The latter can be explained as a result of these groups settling uninhabited islands instead of previously populated regions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tätte |first=Kai |last2=Metspalu |first2=Ene |last3=Post |first3=Helen |last4=Palencia-Madrid |first4=Leire |date=2021 |title=The Ami and Yami aborigines of Taiwan and their genetic relationship to East Asian and Pacific populations |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8298601/#Sec10 |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1092–1102 |via=NCBI}}</ref> Another study detected 77% Austronesian-related ancestral components in the Ami and Atayal, with 21% and 18% Sino-Tibetan-related ancestral components being found in both groups respectively. Taiwanese Han also have 15% Islander Southeast Asian ancestry, which can be attributed to admixture with Austronesian populations although it is more likely that this admixture occurred before Taiwanese Han migrated to Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lo |first=Yun-Hua |last2=Cheng |first2=Hsueh-Chien |last3=Hsiung |first3=Chia-Ni |last4=Yang |first4=Show-Ling |date=2021 |title=Detecting Genetic Ancestry and Adaptation in the Taiwanese Han People |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/38/10/4149/5955855 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=4149–4165 |via=Oxford Academic}}</ref>

A 2022 study states that Ami and Atayal derive their ancestries from a Late Neolithic Fujianese source (66.9–74.3%).<ref name="Huang20222">{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xiufeng |last2=Xia |first2=Zi-Yang |last3=Bin |first3=Xiaoyun |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |last5=Guo |first5=Jianxin |last6=Adnan |first6=Atif |last7=Yin |first7=Lianfei |last8=Huang |first8=Youyi |last9=Zhao |first9=Jing |last10=Yang |first10=Yidong |last11=Ma |first11=Fuwei |last12=Li |first12=Yingxiang |last13=Hu |first13=Rong |last14=Yang |first14=Tianle |last15=Wei |first15=Lan-Hai |date=30 June 2022 |title=Genomic Insights Into the Demographic History of the Southern Chinese |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2022.853391 |doi-access=free |last16=Wang |first16=Chuan-Chao}}</ref>

A 2023 study states that ~1.5 kya Hanben individuals were more genetically related to Atayal whilst the ~7.7 kya Liangdao and ~4.5 kya Suogang individuals were slightly closer to the southern group Rukai. Atayal excessively share alleles with mainland southern East Asian groups, both ancient and modern, whilst Amis and Rukai share alleles with islander Southeast Asian and Oceanic groups, both ancient and modern. Atayal also have their distinctive haplotype network, suggesting founder/isolation events. Into-Taiwan groups, which Atayal are the most related to, possessed low Northeast Asian ancestry (~0–8%) in contrast to modern Taiwanese Highland and Orchid groups (~28–37%).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Dang |last2=Ko |first2=Albert Min-Shan |last3=Stoneking |first3=Mark |date=2023 |title=The genomic diversity of Taiwanese Austronesian groups: Implications for the 'Into- and Out-of-Taiwan' models |url=https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/2/5/pgad122/7160857?login=false#412514429 |journal=PNAS Nexus |volume=2 |issue=5 |page=pgad122 |doi=10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad122 |pmid=37200801 |pmc=10187666 |via=Oxford Academic}}</ref>

Evidence of ancient population admixture between Ami and Atayal and Han Chinese from southern provinces like [[Guangdong]] and [[Sichuan]] was detected.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chiang |first=Charleston W.K. |last2=Mangul |first2=Serghei |last3=Robles |first3=Christopher |last4=Sankararaman |first4=Sriram |date=2018 |title=A Comprehensive Map of Genetic Variation in the World’s Largest Ethnic Grou —Han Chinese |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6693441/ |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2736-2750 |quote=In contrast, Southern provinces, such as the Southwestern province Sichuan and Southern coastal province Guangdong, showed little influence from Siberia or Western Eurasia, but instead exhibited influences from the ethnic minorities geographically situated in the Southwest and Southeast of China, such as the Ami and Atayal from Taiwan and the Dai. |via=NCBI}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lo |first=Yun-Hua |last2=Cheng |first2=Hsueh-Chien |last3=Hsiung |first3=Chia-Ni |last4=Yang |first4=Show-Ling |display-authors=3 |date=2020 |title=Detecting Genetic Ancestry and Adaptation in the Taiwanese Han People |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8476137/ |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=4149–4165 |quote=Using F3, Chiang et al. (2018) also identified significant signatures of population mixture between the Sichuan and Guangdong people (who live in Southwestern and Southeastern China, respectively) with the Ami and Atayal populations of Taiwan, which is in concordance with our hypothesis. Our results are also in a good agreement with the findings of McColl et al. (2018). By analyzing ancient human genomes, they revealed evidence of admixture and suggested that, during the demographic expansion from EA into Southeast Asia about 4,000 years ago, the EA framers did not simply replace the previous occupants. |via=NCBI}}</ref>

Affinities between Taiwanese aborigines and deeply divergent East Eurasian ancestries also existed. For example, there is evidence of excess allele sharing between Ami and Atayal and a 2,500 year old individual from mainland Japan, which was characterized by 'typical [[Jōmon people|Jōmon]] culture'.<ref name="Gakuhari Nakagome Rasmussen et al Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis">{{Cite journal |last1=Gakuhari |first1=Takashi |last2=Nakagome |first2=Shigeki |last3=Rasmussen |first3=Simon |last4=Allentoft |first4=Morten E. |last5=Sato |first5=Takehiro |last6=Korneliussen |first6=Thorfinn |last7=Chuinneagáin |first7=Blánaid Ní |last8=Matsumae |first8=Hiromi |last9=Koganebuchi |first9=Kae |last10=Schmidt |first10=Ryan |last11=Mizushima |first11=Souichiro |last12=Kondo |first12=Osamu |last13=Shigehara |first13=Nobuo |last14=Yoneda |first14=Minoru |last15=Kimura |first15=Ryosuke |date=25 August 2020 |title=Ancient Jomon genome sequence analysis sheds light on migration patterns of early East Asian populations |journal=Communications Biology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=437 |doi=10.1038/s42003-020-01162-2 |pmc=7447786 |pmid=32843717 |quote=Subsequently, we carried out model-based unsupervised clustering using ADMIXTURE44 (Supplementary Fig. 6). Assuming K = 15 ancestral clusters (Fig. 1b), an ancestral component unique to IK002 appears, which is the most prevalent in the Hokkaido Ainu (average 79.3%). This component is also shared with present-day Honshu Japanese as well as Ulchi (9.8% and 6.0%, respectively) (Fig. 1b).}}</ref> Hanben individuals also showed more affinities with Dushan, a prehistoric man from Guangxi who possessed deeply divergent Longlin and Fujian-related ancestries.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Tianyi |last2=Wang |first2=Wei |last3=Xie |first3=Guangmao |last4=Li |first4=Zhen |last5=Fan |first5=Xuechun |last6=Yang |first6=Qingping |last7=Wu |first7=Xichao |last8=Cao |first8=Peng |last9=Liu |first9=Yichen |last10=Yang |first10=Ruowei |last11=Liu |first11=Feng |last12=Dai |first12=Qingyan |last13=Feng |first13=Xiaotian |last14=Wu |first14=Xiaohong |last15=Qin |first15=Ling |date=July 2021 |title=Human population history at the crossroads of East and Southeast Asia since 11,000 years ago |journal=Cell |volume=184 |issue=14 |pages=3829–3841.e21 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.018 |pmid=34171307 |last16=Li |first16=Fajun |last17=Ping |first17=Wanjing |last18=Zhang |first18=Lizhao |last19=Zhang |first19=Ming |last20=Liu |first20=Yalin |last21=Chen |first21=Xiaoshan |last22=Zhang |first22=Dongju |last23=Zhou |first23=Zhenyu |last24=Wu |first24=Yun |last25=Shafiey |first25=Hassan |last26=Gao |first26=Xing |last27=Curnoe |first27=Darren |last28=Mao |first28=Xiaowei |last29=Bennett |first29=E. Andrew |last30=Ji |first30=Xueping |last31=Yang |first31=Melinda A. |last32=Fu |first32=Qiaomei}}</ref> Despite being a founding paternal lineage for Austronesian populations, haplogroup O1a-M119 is more common among Taiwanese indigenous than Austronesian populations from Southeast Asian islands. This haplogroup also peaks in [[Kra–Dai-speaking peoples|Tai-Kadai populations]], especially those living in southeast China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Zhiyong |last2=Wang |first2=Mengge |last3=Hu |first3=Liping |last4=He |first4=Guanglin |last5=Nie |first5=Shengjie |display-authors=3 |date=2024 |title=Evolutionary profiles and complex admixture landscape in East Asia: New insights from modern and ancient Y chromosome variation perspectives |url=https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)06098-5 |journal=Heliyon |volume=10 |issue=9 |via=Cell}}</ref>

===Claimed admixture with Taiwanese Han===
A study by {{ill|Marie Lin|zh|林媽利}} in 2007 reported that the [[human leukocyte antigen]] typing study and [[mitochondrial DNA]] analysis demonstrated that 85% of the Taiwanese Han population had some degree of indigenous origin.{{sfn|Lin|2007}} Other studies by Chen Shun-Shen state that 20% to 60%, and then more than 88% of Taiwanese Han have indigenous blood. These studies were criticized by other researchers and refuted by subsequent genetic studies.{{sfn|Liu|2012|pp=332–333}} However the idea that Taiwanese Han are a hybrid population genetically different from Chinese Han has been used as a basis for Taiwanese independence from China. This belief has been called the "myth of indigenous genes" by some researchers such as Shu-juo Chen and Hong-kuan Duan, who say that "genetic studies have never supported the idea that Taiwanese Han are genetically different with Chinese Han."<ref name=ChenDuan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Shu-juo|last2=Duan|first2=Hong-kuan|year=2008|journal=Taiwan: A Radical Quarterly in Social Studies |volume=72|url=https://www.academia.edu/12142226|title=Plains Indigenous Ancestors and Taiwan Blood Nationalism}}</ref>

The idea that "We are all indigenous people" was initially welcomed by indigenous leaders but has faced increasing opposition as it became viewed as a tool for Taiwanese independence. On 9 August 2005, a celebration for the constitutional reforms protecting indigenous rights was held, during which Premier [[Frank Hsieh]] announced that he had an indigenous great-grandmother and that "Now you shouldn't say: 'you are indigenous, I am not.' Everyone is indigenous."{{sfn|Liu|2012|p=341}} Descendants of plains indigenous have opposed the usage of their ancestors in the call for Taiwanese independence. Genetic studies show genetic differences between Taiwanese Han and mountain indigenous. According to Chen and Duan, the genetic ancestry of individuals cannot be traced with certainty and attempts to construct identity through genetics are "theoretically meaningless".<ref name=ChenDuan2008/>

The Plains "Pingpu" indigenous of Taiwan criticized Lin's studies, which follows the "blood line theory" of Taiwanese nationalism. Alak Akatuang, secretary of the Pingpu Indigenous Peoples Cultural Association, said that the pan-green camp used the indigenous peoples to create a national identity for Taiwan, but the idea that Taiwanese people are not overwhelmingly descended from Han settlers is false. According to Akatuang, Taiwan's independence should not be founded on the idea of genetic lineages and these people who believe in the blood line theory "ignore scientific evidence because they want to believe they are different from China."<ref name="Siraya">{{cite web|first1=Itamar|last1=Waksman|access-date=2023-04-19|title=The Siraya's Fight for Recognition in Taiwan|url=https://international.thenewslens.com/article/161526|date=14 January 2022|website=[[The News Lens]] International Edition}}</ref> This harmed the legitimacy of the Pingpu movement for recognition and reparations and was deeply insulting: "The Pingpu were the first of Taiwan's Indigenous peoples to face colonization. After the Han people came, they stole our land. They murdered our ancestors. Then after a few hundred years, they said we were the same people. Do you think a Pingpu person can accept this?"<ref name="Siraya"/>

In the highest self reports, 5.3 percent of Taiwan's population claimed indigenous heritage.{{sfn|Liu|2012|pp=332–333}} Estimates of genetic indigenous ancestry reported by Lin range from 13%, 26%, and as high as 85%, the latter number being published in an editorial that was not peer-reviewed. These numbers have taken hold in popular Taiwanese imagination and sometimes treated as facts in Taiwanese politics and identity. Many Taiwanese claim to be part indigenous. Chen suggests that the estimates resulted from manipulation of sample sizes. The lack of methodological rigor suggests the numbers were meant for local consumption. In all other scientific studies, genetic markers for indigenous ancestry make up a minute portion of the genome.{{sfn|Liu|2012|pp=332–333}} In 2021, Marie Lin, who was the source of the larger indigenous ancestry numbers, co-authored an article stating that there are "distinct patterns of genetic structure between the Taiwanese Han and indigenous populations." The paper also suggest East Asian ancestry may have mixed with indigenous peoples in their southward expansion 4,000 years ago, which can lead to data that may be misinterpreted as recent Taiwanese Han-indigenous admixtures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lo|first1=Yun-Hua|last2=Cheng|first2=Hsueh-Chien|last3=Hsiung|first3=Chia-Ni|last4=Yang|first4=Show-Ling|last5=Wang|first5=Han-Yu|last6=Peng|first6=Chia-Wei|last7=Chen|first7=Chun-Yu|last8=Lin|first8=Kung-Ping|last9=Kang|first9=Mei-Ling|last10=Chen|first10=Chien-Hsiun|last11=Chu|first11=Hou-Wei|date=2021-10-01|title=Detecting Genetic Ancestry and Adaptation in the Taiwanese Han People|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa276|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=38|issue=10|pages=4149–4165|doi=10.1093/molbev/msaa276|pmid=33170928|pmc=8476137|issn=0737-4038}}</ref>