Editing History of the Philippines (section)

== American rule (1898–1946) ==
{{anchor|American period (1898–1946)}}
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}}
[[File:McKinleyPhilippinesCartoon.jpg|thumb|upright|right|1898 political cartoon showing U.S. President [[William McKinley|McKinley]] with a native child. Here, returning the Philippines to Spain is compared to throwing the child off a cliff.]]
Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two nations joined in a common struggle against Spain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=135}}</ref> However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the Filipino insurgents. Emilio Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit to paper a statement of support for [[Independence Day (Philippines)|Philippine independence]].<ref name="uslc-13">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-13}}</ref> The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States alongside [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] as a result of the latter's victory in the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Halstead|first1=M|title=The Story of the Philippines|journal=Nature|volume=70|issue=1811|pages=248–249|date=1898|bibcode=1904Natur..70..248T|doi=10.1038/070248a0|doi-access=free}}</ref> A compensation of US$20&nbsp;million was paid to Spain according to the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]].<ref>Price, Michael G. (2002). Foreword. In A.B. Feuer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=f-2Qef1JSjsC ''America at War: the Philippines, 1898–1913''] (pp. xiii–xvi). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. {{ISBN|0-275-96821-9}}.</ref> Relations deteriorated and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands to stay.<ref name="uslc-13" />

=== Philippine–American War ===
{{Main|Philippine–American War}}
[[File:Filipino casualties on the first day of war.jpg|left|thumb|Filipino casualties on the first day of war]]
Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates killed three Filipino soldiers as American forces launched a major attack in [[San Juan, Metro Manila|San Juan]], a [[Manila]] suburb.<ref name="uslc-15">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-15}}</ref> This began the [[Philippine–American War]], which would cost far more money and take far more lives than the [[Spanish–American War]].<ref name="pinas" /> Some 126,000 American soldiers would be committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died,<ref name="uslc-15" /> as did 12,000–20,000 [[Philippine Revolutionary Army|Philippine Republican Army]] soldiers who were part of a nationwide [[guerrilla]] movement of at least 80,000 to 100,000 soldiers.<ref name=deady2005p55>{{Harvnb|Deady|2005|p=55 (page 3 of the PDF)}}</ref>

The general population, caught between Americans and rebels, suffered significantly. At least 200,000 Filipino civilians died as an indirect result of the war mostly as a result of the [[cholera]] epidemic at the war's end that took between 150,000 and 200,000 lives.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Silbey|title=A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Vp63xXFh64C&pg=PA200|year=2008|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux|pages=200–01|isbn=9780809096619}}</ref> Atrocities were committed by both sides.<ref name="uslc-15" />
[[File:Americans guarding Pasig River bridge, 1898.jpg|left|thumb|American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig on the afternoon of the surrender. From ''Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain'', Vol. II, published by Harper and Brothers in 1899.]]

The poorly equipped Filipino troops were easily overpowered by American troops in open combat, but they were formidable opponents in guerrilla warfare.<ref name="uslc-15" /> [[Malolos City|Malolos]], the revolutionary capital, was captured on March 31, 1899. Aguinaldo and his government escaped, however, establishing a new capital at [[San Isidro, Nueva Ecija]]. On June 5, 1899, [[Antonio Luna]], Aguinaldo's most capable military commander, was killed by Aguinaldo's guards in an apparent assassination while visiting [[Cabanatuan]], [[Nueva Ecija]] to meet with Aguinaldo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=222}}; {{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=270}}.</ref> With his best commander dead and his troops suffering continued defeats as American forces pushed into northern [[Luzon]], Aguinaldo dissolved the regular army on November 13 and ordered the establishment of decentralized guerrilla commands in each of several military zones.<ref>{{Harvnb|Linn|2000|p=148}}.</ref> Another key general, [[Gregorio del Pilar]], was killed on December 2, 1899, in the [[Battle of Tirad Pass]]—a [[rear guard]] action to delay the Americans while Aguinaldo made good his escape through the mountains.

[[File:Emilio Aguinaldo boarding USS Vicksburg.jpg|thumb|President Emilio Aguinaldo boarding the [[USS Vicksburg (PG-11)|USS Vicksburg]] after his capture by American forces.]]
Aguinaldo was captured at [[Palanan, Isabela]] on March 23, 1901, and was brought to Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down their arms, officially bringing an end to the war.<ref name="uslc-15" /> However, sporadic insurgent resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim south, until 1913.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–260, 294–297}}</ref>

In 1900, President McKinley sent the [[Taft Commission]] to the Philippines with a mandate to legislate laws and re-engineer the political system.<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=86–87}}.</ref> On July 1, 1901, [[William Howard Taft]], the head of the commission, was inaugurated as Civil Governor, with limited executive powers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Taft|1908|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxqmVdt6hKgC 1]}}</ref> The authority of the Military Governor was continued in those areas where the insurrection persisted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ellis|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=phT0ympWgeQC&pg=PA2143 2143]}}</ref> The Taft Commission passed laws to set up the fundamentals of the new government, including a judicial system, civil service, and local government. A [[Philippine Constabulary]] was organized to deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement and gradually assume the responsibilities of the [[United States Army]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Escalante|2007|pp=86–169 (ch. 5, ''Laying the Foundations of Colonial Rule'')}}</ref>

=== The Tagalog, Negros, and Zamboanga Republics ===
Brigadier General [[James F. Smith]] arrived at Bacolod on March 4, 1899, as the [[Military Governor]] of the Sub-district of Negros, after receiving an invitation from [[Aniceto Lacson]], president of the breakaway [[Republic of Negros|Cantonal Republic of Negros]].{{sfn|Linn|2000|pp=75–76}} The Negros Republic became a Pro-American protectorate of the United States.<ref>[http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/429/434 The Republic of Negros By Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr.] Philippine Studies vol. 48, no. 1 (2000): 26–52</ref> Another insurgent republic was briefly formed during American administration: the [[Tagalog Republic]] in Luzon, under [[Macario Sakay]].<ref name="antonio abad">{{cite book|last1=Kabigting Abad|first1=Antonio|title=General Macario L. Sakay: Was He a Bandit or a Patriot?|year=1955|publisher=J. B. Feliciano and Sons Printers-Publishers}}</ref> In the island of Mindanao the [[Chavacano Language|Chavacano-speaking]] [[Republic of Zamboanga]] was proclaimed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zamboanga.com/history/republic_of_zamboanga.html |title=History of The Republic of Zamboanga (May 1899 – March 1903) |date=July 18, 2009 |publisher=Zamboanga.com |location=Zamboanga City, Philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201023553/http://zamboanga.com/history/republic_of_zamboanga.html |archive-date=December 1, 2010 |access-date=August 13, 2010 |url-status=dead  }}</ref> That government was formed by [[Vicente Álvarez (general)|Vicente Álvarez]] with the support of [[Jamalul Kiram II]], the then [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sultan of Sulu]], and included Latin-American (Peruvian, [[Juan Fermin de San Martin|Uruguayan]] and [[José de San Martín#Legacy|Argentinian]])<ref>In Spanish: [https://www.infobae.com/2015/01/15/1621145-el-hermano-desconocido-san-martin-que-lucho-y-murio-filipinas/ The unknown brother of San Martin who fought and died in the Philippines By Claudia Peiro]</ref> enslaved soldiers who had revolted against the Spanish colonial government and included Muslims, Lumads, and Christians in his anti-Spanish army.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bautista|first=Rolando|title=Zamboanga Hermosa: Memories of the Old Town|date=1984|publisher=Filipinas Foundation, Inc.|location=Makati, Philippines|pages=89–91}}</ref>

=== Insular Government (1901–1935) ===
{{Main|Insular Government of the Philippine Islands}}

[[File:Taft Addressing First Philippine Assembly 1907.jpg|thumb|right|[[William Howard Taft]] addressing the audience at the [[Philippine Assembly]].]]
[[File:Manuel Luis Quezon, (center), with representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission (cropped).jpg|thumb|Representatives from the Philippine Independence Mission left to right: [[Isauro Gabaldón]], [[Sergio Osmeña]], [[Manuel L. Quezon]], [[Claro M. Recto]], [[Pedro Guevara]], Jorge Bocobo]]
The [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]] was the basic law for the [[Insular Government]], so called because civil administration was under the authority of the U.S. [[Bureau of Insular Affairs]]. This government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.<ref name="uslc-16">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-16}}</ref> On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished and full executive power passed from [[Adna Chaffee]], the last military governor, to Taft, who became the first U.S. [[Governor-General of the Philippines]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Ellis|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=phT0ympWgeQC&pg=PA2163 2163]}}</ref>
United States policies towards the Philippines shifted with changing administrations.<ref name="pinas" /> During the early years of territorial administration, the Americans were reluctant to delegate authority to the Filipinos, but an elected [[Philippine Assembly]] was inaugurated in 1907, as the lower house of a [[bicameral legislature]], with the appointive Philippine Commission becoming the upper house.

Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A 1907 report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching, and boasted about such modernizing achievements as:
:steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated [[Port of Manila]]; dredging the [[River Pasig]]; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey.<ref>Andrew Roberts, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900'' (2008), p 26.</ref>

In 1903 the American reformers in the Philippines passed two major land acts designed to turn landless peasants into owners of their farms. By 1905 the law was clearly a failure. Reformers such as Taft believed landownership would turn unruly agrarians into loyal subjects. The social structure in the rural Philippines was highly traditional and highly unequal. Drastic changes in land ownership posed a major challenge to local elites, who would not accept it, nor would their peasant clients. The American reformers blamed peasant resistance to landownership for the law's failure and argued that large plantations and sharecropping was the Philippines' best path to development.<ref>{{Cite journal | jstor=10.3098/ah.2016.090.4.459| doi=10.3098/ah.2016.090.4.459|title = From Small Farms to Progressive Plantations: The Trajectory of Land Reform in the American Colonial Philippines, 1900–1916|journal = Agricultural History| volume=90| issue=4| pages=459–483|year = 2016|last1 = Theresa Ventura}}</ref>

[[File:Calle Sebastian Calle Hidalgo Manila.jpg|left|thumb|[[Tranvía]] in Manila during American Era]]Elite Filipina women played a major role in the reform movement, especially on health issues. They specialized on such urgent needs as infant care and maternal and child health, the distribution of pure milk and teaching new mothers about children's health. The most prominent organizations were the La Protección de la Infancia, and the National Federation of Women's Clubs.<ref>Mina Roces, "Filipino Elite Women and Public Health in the American Colonial Era, 1906–1940." Women's ''History Review'' 26#3 (2017): 477–502.</ref>

When Democrat [[Woodrow Wilson]] became U.S. president in 1913, new policies were launched designed to gradually lead to Philippine independence. In 1902 U.S. law established Filipinos citizenship in the Philippine Islands; unlike Hawaii in 1898 and Puerto Rico in 1918, they did not become citizens of the United States. The [[Jones Act (Philippines)|Jones Law]] of 1916 became the new basic law, promised eventual independence. It provided for the election of both houses of the legislature.
[[File:Plaza Moraga Manila Philippines.jpg|thumb|Manila, Philippines, ca.1900s]]
In socio-economic terms, the Philippines made solid progress in this period. Foreign trade had amounted to 62 million pesos in 1895, 13% of which was with the United States. By 1920, it had increased to 601&nbsp;million pesos, 66% of which was with the United States.<ref>{{cite book| last1=Reyes| first1=Jose| title=Legislative history of America's economic policy toward the Philippines| publisher=Columbia University| series=Studies in history, economics and public law| volume=106| edition=2| year=1923| pages=192 of 232| url=http://www.questiaschool.com/read/3845789?title=Legislative%20History%20of%20America%27s%20Economic%20Policy%20toward%20the%20Philippines}}{{dead link|date=June 2021}}<!-- goes to a page which does not relate to this --></ref> A health care system was established which, by 1930, reduced the [[mortality rate]] from all causes, including various [[tropical disease]]s, to a level similar to that of the United States itself. The practices of [[slavery]], [[piracy]] and [[headhunting]] were suppressed but not entirely extinguished.
A new educational system was established with English as the medium of instruction, eventually becoming a ''lingua franca'' of the Islands. The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members of the elected legislature lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
[[File:El Hogar building Manila.jpg|thumb|[[El Hogar Filipino Building|El Hogar Building.]] With Manila's Hispanic- Austronesian-Sinic roots. [[Daniel Burnham]] built a plan that takes advantage of its cityscape, possessing the [[Gulf of Naples|Bay of Naples]], the winding river of [[Paris]], and the canals of [[Venice]]. With his [[City Beautiful movement]] style of Urban planning.]]
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the [[Nacionalista Party]], which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called for "immediate independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly accommodating.<ref name="uslc-17">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-17}}</ref> Within the political establishment, the call for independence was spearheaded by [[Manuel L. Quezon]], who served continuously as [[Senate president]] from 1916 until 1935.

World War I gave the Philippines the opportunity to pledge assistance to the US war effort. This took the form of an offer to supply a division of troops, as well as providing funding for the construction of two warships. A locally recruited national guard was created and significant numbers of Filipinos volunteered for service in the US Navy and army.<ref>Page 92, Volume 32 ''The Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1922 edition</ref>

[[Daniel Burnham]] built an architectural plan for Manila which would have transformed it into a modern city.<ref>Moore, Charles (1921). [https://books.google.com/books?id=aR7iAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA162 "Daniel H. Burnham: Planner of Cities"]. Houghton Mifflin and Co., Boston and New York.</ref>

[[Frank Murphy]] was the last [[Governor-General of the Philippines]] (1933–35), and the first U.S. [[High Commissioner of the Philippines]] (1935–36). The change in form was more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to independence.

=== Commonwealth ===

{{Main|Commonwealth of the Philippines}}
[[File:Manuel L. Quezon (November 1942).jpg|left|thumb|Philippine President [[Manuel L. Quezon]]|179x179px]]

The [[Great Depression]] in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States.<ref>Goff, Richard; Moss, Walter G.; Terry, Janice; Upshur, Jiu-Hwa: ''The Twentieth Century: A Brief Global History'', Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1998, pp. 212</ref>

[[File:Quezon Roosevelt.jpg|thumb|right|Commonwealth President [[Manuel L. Quezon]] with United States President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in Washington, D.C.|162x162px]]
In 1933, the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act]] as a Philippine Independence Act over President [[Herbert Hoover]]'s veto.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|pp=345–346}}</ref> Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President [[Manuel L. Quezon]], partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill.<ref name="uslc-20">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-20}}</ref> The following year, a revised act known as the [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] with transition to full independence after a ten-year period. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president.<ref name="uslc-20" /> The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on July 4 following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth.
[[File:Aurora Quezon in Malacañan Palace.jpg|left|thumb|267x267px|[[Philippine First Lady]] [[Aurora Quezon]]]]
A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on March 23, 1935, and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522092815/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html|title=Corpus Juris – 1935 Constitution|author=Super Administrator|archive-date=May 22, 2009|work=thecorpusjuris.com|access-date=February 29, 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|pp=317–318}} (archived from [http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html the original] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090522092815/http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/laws/constitutions/8-philippineconstitutions/66-1935-constitution.html |date=May 22, 2009}} on May 22, 2009)</ref>

On September 17, 1935,<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14980#axzz1nmGfKCgR|title=Franklin D. Roosevelt: Proclamation 2148 – Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines|work=ucsb.edu}}</ref> [[1935 Philippine presidential election|presidential elections]] were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the ''[[Philippine Independent Church|Iglesia Filipina Independiente]]'' leader [[Gregorio Aglipay]], and others. [[Manuel L. Quezon]] and [[Sergio Osmeña]] of the [[Nacionalista Party]] were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.<ref name="US-influence">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Philippines, The period of U.S. influence|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|access-date=February 10, 2007}}</ref>

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the [[Old Legislative Building (Manila)|Legislative Building]] in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people.<ref name="presidency.ucsb.edu" /> Under the Tydings–McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for July 4, 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years.

[[File:Central facade of the Legislative Building.jpg|thumb|Legislative Building of the commonwealth of the Philippines]]
The new government embarked on ambitious nation-building policies in preparation for economic and political independence.<ref name="US-influence2">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Philippines, The period of U.S. influence|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|access-date=February 10, 2007|edition=online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070205150116/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23717/Philippines|archive-date=February 5, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> These included national defense (such as the [[National Defense Act of 1935]], which organized a [[conscription]] for service in the country), greater control over the [[Economy of the Philippines|economy]], the perfection of democratic institutions, reforms in education, improvement of transport, the promotion of local capital, industrialization, and the colonization of [[Mindanao]].

However, uncertainties, especially in the diplomatic and military situation in [[Southeast Asia]], in the level of U.S. commitment to the future [[Republic of the Philippines]], and in the economy due to the [[Great Depression]], proved to be major problems. The situation was further complicated by the presence of agrarian unrest, and of power struggles between Osmeña and Quezon,<ref name="US-influence2" /> especially after Quezon was permitted to be re-elected after one six-year term.

A proper evaluation of the policies' effectiveness or failure is difficult due to Japanese invasion and [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupation]] during World War II.

=== World War II and Japanese occupation ===
{{Main|Japanese occupation of the Philippines|Second Philippine Republic|Home front during World War II#The Philippines}}

==== Military ====
[[File:Roxas and his Japanese friend.jpg|thumb|upright|Colonel Nobuhiko Jimbo and Manuel Roxas began and ended the conflict on opposite sides.]]
[[Japan]] launched a surprise [[Battle of the Philippines (1942)|attack]] on the Clark Air Base in [[Pampanga]] on the morning of December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General [[Douglas MacArthur]]. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and to the island of [[Corregidor]] at the entrance to Manila Bay.

On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an [[open city]] to prevent its destruction.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=392}}</ref> The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the [[Bataan Peninsula]] in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous [[Bataan Death March]] to a prison camp 105&nbsp;kilometers to the north. About 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacsamana|1990|p=168}}</ref>
President Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile.<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=415}}</ref> MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
[[File:Washington, D.C. Representatives of 26 United Nations at Flag day ceremonies in the White House to reaffirm their pact.jpg|thumb|Exiled Manuel L. Quezon (sitting second to the right) in Washington, D.C., with Representatives of 26 United Nations at Flag day ceremonies in the [[White House]] to reaffirm their pact. ]]
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the [[Philippine Executive Commission]]. They initially organized a [[Philippine Council of State|Council of State]], through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when Japan declared the Philippines an independent republic at Gozen Kaigi since U.S. government had promised independence of the Philippines in 1935. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President [[José P. Laurel]] proved to be unpopular.<ref name="uslc-21">{{Harvnb|Dolan|1991-21}}</ref>

From mid-1942 through mid-1944, Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|underground and guerrilla activity]].<ref name="McAAE">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html|archive-date=January 28, 2017 |title=The Guerrilla War |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] |access-date=February 24, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maranao.com/bangsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm |title=The Japanese Invasion |first1=Salah |last1=Jubair |publisher=Maranao.Com |access-date=February 23, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100727232925/http://www.maranao.com/bangsamoro/0506-japan_invasion.htm |archive-date=July 27, 2010 }}</ref> The [[Philippine Army]], as well as remnants of the [[U.S. Army Forces Far East]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Norling|2005}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Intrepid Guerrillas of North Luzon |url=http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/guerrillas.htm |work=Defense Journal |year=2002 |access-date=May 21, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323170920/http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/guerrillas.htm |archive-date=March 23, 2010 }}</ref> continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army.<ref>{{cite web |title=Map of known insurgent activity |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1/Images/p_084.jpg |work=Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |access-date=August 26, 2009 |archive-date=June 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603023221/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/Images/p_084.jpg |url-status=dead }}</ref> Supplies and encouragement were provided by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Dominic J. |last1=Caraccilo |title=Surviving Bataan And Beyond: Colonel Irvin Alexander's Odyssey As A Japanese Prisoner Of War |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFmQC |year=2005 |publisher=Stackpole Books |isbn=978-0-8117-3248-2 |page= [https://books.google.com/books?id=aWfqFW_OFmQC&pg=PA287 287]}}</ref> Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]].<ref name="uslc-21" /> One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the [[Hukbalahap]], which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon.<ref name="uslc-21" /> While remaining loyal to the United States, many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already-promised independence.<ref name="Dispositions">{{cite web |title=Dispositions and deaths |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |website=Australia-Japan Research Project |access-date=April 21, 2020 }}</ref>

[[File:Photograph of American Prisoners Using Improvised Litters to Carry Comrades, 05-1942 - NARA - 535564.jpg|thumb|left|As many as 10,000 American and Filipino soldiers died in the [[Bataan Death March]]]]The Philippines was the bloodiest theater of the war for the invading empire, with at least 498,600 Japanese troops killed in fighting the combined Filipino resistance and American soldiers, a larger number of casualties compared to the second-placed theater, the entirety of China, which caused the Japanese about 455,700 casualties.<ref>{{cite web |title=Figures were compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964. |url=http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |website=Australia-Japan Research Project |access-date=March 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311073745/http://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/AJRP2.nsf/530e35f7e2ae7707ca2571e3001a112d/e7daa03b9084ad56ca257209000a85f7?OpenDocument |archive-date=March 11, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dispositions" /> The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. At the eve of the liberation of the Philippines, the Allied forces and the Japanese Empire waged the largest naval battle in history, by gross tonnage in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]].{{refn|<ref name="Woodward1947">{{cite book |title=The Battle for Leyte Gulf |last1=Woodward |first1=C. Vann |year=1947 |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York}}</ref><ref>"LIEUTENANT RAMSEY'S WAR" by EDWIN PRICE RAMSEY and STEPHEN J. RIVELE.Published by Knightsbride publishing Co, Los Angeles, California</ref>}} The American army had been fighting the [[Philippines Campaign (1944–45)|Philippines Campaign]] since October 1944, when MacArthur's [[Sixth United States Army]] [[Battle of Leyte|landed]] on [[Leyte]]. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945. Approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were missing in action in the Philippines when the war ended, more than in any other country in the Pacific or European Theaters. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the [[Battle of Manila (1945)|Battle of Manila]]. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.<ref name="uslc-21" />

==== Home front ====
[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|[[Leyte]] Landing of General [[Douglas MacArthur]] to liberate the Philippines from the Empire of Japan]]
As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic. Japan in 1943 proposed independence on new terms, and some collaborators went along with the plan, but Japan was clearly losing the war and nothing became of it.<ref>Dear and Foot, eds. ''Oxford Companion to World War II'' pp 877–79</ref>

With a view of building up the economic base of the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]], the Japanese Army envisioned using the islands as a source of agricultural products needed by its industry. For example, the Japanese had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan but a severe shortage of cotton, so they tried to grow cotton on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, [[pesticide]]s, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flocked to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, [[castor bean]]s and [[copra]] for oil, [[derris]] for [[quinine]], cotton for uniforms, and [[abaca]] (hemp) for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages. The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production.

Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, due to inflation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ara | first1 = Satoshi | year = 2008 | title = Food supply problem in Leyte, Philippines, during the Japanese Occupation (1942–44)| journal = Journal of Southeast Asian Studies | volume = 39 | issue = 1| pages = 59–82 | doi=10.1017/s0022463408000039| s2cid = 162389263 }}</ref>