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==Methodology== ===Interdisciplinary data collection=== Many feminist economists challenge the perception that only "objective" (often presumed to be [[quantitative research|quantitative]]) data are valid.<ref name="nelson1"/> Instead, they say economists should enrich their analysis by using data sets generated from other disciplines or through increased use of qualitative methods.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berik|first=Günseli|title=The Need for Crossing the Method Boundaries in Economics Research|journal=Feminist Economics|date=January 1997|volume=3|issue=2|pages=121–125|doi=10.1080/135457097338735}}</ref> Additionally, many feminist economists propose utilizing non-traditional data collection strategies such as "utilizing growth accounting frameworks, conducting [[empirical]] tests of economic theories, developing country [[case studies]], and pursuing research at the conceptual and empirical levels."<ref name="berik"/> Interdisciplinary data collection looks at systems from a specific moral position and viewpoint instead of attempting the perspective of a neutral observer. The intention is not to create a more "subjective" methodology, but to counter biases in existing methodologies, by recognizing that all explanations for world phenomena arise from socially-influenced viewpoints. Feminist economists say too many theories claim to present universal principles but actually present a masculine viewpoint in the guise of a "[[view from nowhere]]", so more varied sources of data collection are needed to mediate those issues.<ref>{{cite book | last = Nelson | first = Julie | author-link = Julie A. Nelson | title = Feminism, objectivity and economics | publisher = Routledge | location = London New York | year = 1996 | isbn = 9780203435915 }}</ref> ===Ethical judgment=== Feminist economists depart from traditional economics in that they say "[[ethics|ethical]] judgments are a valid, inescapable, and in fact desirable part of economic analysis."<ref name="Power, Marilyn 2011"/> For example, Lourdes Beneria argues that judgments about policies leading to greater well-being should be central to economic analysis.<ref name=gdgeaipm /> Similarly, [[Shahra Razavi]] says better understanding of care work "would allow us to shift our priorities from 'making money' or 'making stuff' to 'making livable lives' and 'enriching networks of care and relationship'" which should be central to economics.<ref name="razavi"/> ===Country case studies=== Often feminist economists use country-level or smaller [[case studies]] focused on [[developing country|developing]] and often understudied countries or populations.<ref name="berik"/> For example, Michael Kevane and Leslie C. Gray examine how gendered [[social norms]] are central to understanding agricultural activities in [[Burkina Faso]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kevane |first1=Michael| last2=Gray| first2 =Leslie C.| title=A Woman's Field Is Made At Night: Gendered Land Rights And Norms In Burkina Faso|journal=Feminist Economics|date=January 1999|volume=5|issue=3|pages=1–26|doi=10.1080/135457099337789| url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/taf/femeco/v5y1999i3p1-26.html|citeseerx=10.1.1.194.4747|s2cid=17311467 }}</ref> Cristina Carrasco and Arantxa Rodriquez examine the care economy in [[Spain]] to suggest that women's entrance into the labor market requires more equitable caregiving responsibilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carrasco|first=Cristina|author2=RodrÍguez, Arantxa|title=Women, Families, and Work in Spain: Structural Changes and New Demands|journal=Feminist Economics|date=January 2000|volume=6|issue=1|pages=45–57|doi=10.1080/135457000337660|s2cid=154618578|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/taf/femeco/v6y2000i1p45-57.html}}</ref> Such studies show the importance of local social norms, government policies and cultural situations. Feminist economists see such variation as a crucial factor to be included in economics. ===Alternative measures of success=== Feminist economists call for a shift in how economic success is measured. These changes include an increased focus on a policy's ability to bring society toward social justice and improve people's lives, through specific goals including distributive fairness, equity, the universal provisioning of needs, elimination of [[poverty]], freedom from [[discrimination]] and the protection of human capabilities.<ref name="berik"/><ref name="elsoncagatay">{{cite journal|last1=Elson|first1=Diane|author2=Cagatay, Nilufer|author-link1=Diane Elson|title=The Social Content of Macroeconomic Policies|journal=World Development|date=July 2000|volume=28|issue=7|pages=1347–1364|doi=10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00021-8|url=http://csde.washington.edu/~scurran/files/readings/May19/Elson.%20Social%20Content%20of%20Macroeconomic%20Policies.pdf|access-date=2012-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625045358/http://csde.washington.edu/~scurran/files/readings/May19/Elson.%20Social%20Content%20of%20Macroeconomic%20Policies.pdf|archive-date=2010-06-25|url-status = dead}}</ref> ==== Human Development Index (HDI) ==== [[File:2011 UN Human Development Report Quartiles.svg|400px|thumb|right|World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2011 {| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%;" |- | {{legend|#003399|Very High (developed country)}} || {{legend|#E6EDFF|Low (developing country)}} |- | {{legend|#3072D9|High (developing country)}} || {{legend|#858585|Data unavailable}} |- | {{legend|#A8C3FF|Medium (developing country)}} || |}]] {{main|Human Development Index}} Feminist economists often support use of the [[Human Development Index]] as a composite statistic in order to assess countries by their overall level of [[human development (humanity)|human development]], as opposed to other measures. The HDI takes into account a broad array of measures beyond monetary considerations including [[life expectancy]], literacy, education, and standards of living for all countries worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fukuda-Parr|first=Sakiko|author-link=Sakiko Fukuda-Parr|title=The Human Development Paradigm: Operationalizing Sen's Ideas on Capabilities|journal=Feminist Economics|date=January 2003|volume=9|issue=2–3|pages=301–317|doi=10.1080/1354570022000077980|url=http://econpapers.repec.org/article/taffemeco/v_3a9_3ay_3a2003_3ai_3a2-3_3ap_3a301-317.htm|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.4127|s2cid=18178004}}</ref> ====Gender-related Development Index (GDI)==== {{main|Gender-related Development Index}} The '''Gender-related Development Index''' (GDI) was introduced in 1995 in the [[Human Development Report]] written by the [[United Nations Development Program]] in order to add a gender-sensitive dimension to the Human Development Index. The GDI takes into account not only the average or general level of well-being and wealth within a given country, but also how this wealth and well-being is distributed between different groups within society, especially between genders.<ref name="Gender">{{cite journal|last=Klasen|first=Stephan|title=UNDP's Gender-related Measures: Some Conceptual Problems and Possible Solutions|journal=Journal of Human Development|date=July 2006|volume=7|issue=2|pages=243–274|doi=10.1080/14649880600768595|s2cid=15421076}} Available from: EconLit with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed September 26, 2011.</ref> However, feminist economists do not universally agree on the use of the GDI and some offer improvements to it.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1= Klasen |first1= Stephan | last2 = Schüler | first2 = Dana | title = Reforming the gender-related development index and the gender empowerment measure: implementing some specific proposals | journal = Feminist Economics| volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–30 | doi = 10.1080/13545701.2010.541860 | date = 2011 |s2cid= 154373171 }}</ref> ====Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)==== The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) is a recently developed measure of [[gender inequality]] calculated by analyzing social institutions, societal practices, and legal norms and how these factors largely frame gender norms within a society. By combining these sources of inequality, SIGI is able to penalize high levels of inequality in each of the applicable dimensions, allowing for only partial compensation by the gaps between the remaining dimensions and the highly inequitable one. Through its analysis of the institutional sources of gender inequality in over 100 countries, SIGI has been proven to add new insights into outcomes for women, even when other factors such as religion and region of the world are controlled for.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Branisa|first1=Boris|last2=Klasen|first2=Stephan|last3=Ziegler|first3=Maria|last4=Drechsler|first4=Denis|last5=Jütting|first5=Johannes|title=The Institutional Basis of Gender Inequality: The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)|journal=Feminist Economics|volume=20|issue=2|pages=29–64|doi=10.1080/13545701.2013.850523|year=2014|s2cid=154769451|url=https://zenodo.org/record/897865}}<!--https://zenodo.org/record/897865--></ref> SIGI rankings largely mirror those of the HDI, with countries such as Portugal and Argentina leading the pack, while countries like Afghanistan and Sudan are significantly behind.
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