Editing Chicano (section)

=== Visual arts ===
{{See also|Chicano art movement|Chicana art}}
[[File:Carlos Almaraz (1941–1989).png|thumb|201x201px|[[Carlos Almaraz]] (1979)]]
The Chicano visual art tradition, like the identity, is grounded in community empowerment and resisting assimilation and oppression.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gaspar de Alba|first=Alicia|title=Chicano Art Inside/Outside the Master's House: Cultural Politics and the CARA Exhibition|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|isbn=9780292788985|chapter=A Theoretical Introduction: Alter-Native Ethnography, a lo rasquache}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Linn|first=Sarah|date=22 June 2017|title=Art as Resistance: Chicano Artists in the Time of Trump|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/art-as-resistance-chicano-artists-in-the-time-of-trump|website=KCET|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=19 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919184027/https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/art-as-resistance-chicano-artists-in-the-time-of-trump|url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to the introduction of spray cans, paint brushes were used by Chicano "shoeshine boys [who] marked their names on the walls with their daubers to stake out their spots on the sidewalk" in the early 20th century.<ref name="Bojórquez-2019" /> Pachuco graffiti culture in [[Los Angeles]] was already "in full bloom" by the 1930s and 1940s, pachucos developed their ''placa'', "a distinctive calligraphic writing style" which went on to influence contemporary [[Tagging (graffiti)|graffiti tagging]].<ref name="Vargas-2000">{{Cite book|last=Vargas|first=George|title=Chicano Renaissance: Contemporary Cultural Trends|publisher=University of Arizona Press|year=2000|isbn=9780816520213|pages=202–210}}</ref> [[Paño]], a form of ''[[Pinto (subculture)|pinto]] arte'' (a [[Caló (Chicano)|''caló'']] term for male [[prisoner]]) using pen and pencil, developed in the 1930s, first using [[bed sheet]]s and [[pillowcases]] as canvases.<ref name="Hoinskip1">Hoinski, Michael. "How Prison Art From Texas Captured the Art World's Attention." ''[[Texas Monthly]]''. Thursday February 13, 2014. [http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/how-prison-art-texas-captured-art-worlds-attention 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112043925/http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/how-prison-art-texas-captured-art-worlds-attention |date=2015-01-12 }}. Retrieved on March 3, 2014.</ref> Paño has been described as ''[[rasquachismo]]'', a Chicano worldview and artmaking method which makes the most from the least.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alejandro Sorell|first=Víctor|title=Encyclopedia of Latino Popular Culture: Volume 2|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2004|isbn=9780313332111|pages=630–633|chapter=Pinto Arte}}</ref>
[[File:Chaz Bojorquez sketches a tattoo.jpg|left|thumb|215x215px|[[Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez|Chaz Bojorquez]] (2011)]]
Graffiti artists, such as [[Charles "Chaz" Bojórquez]], developed an original style of graffiti art known as West Coast Cholo style influenced by Mexican murals and pachuco ''placas'' ([[Tagging (graffiti)|tags]] which indicate territorial boundaries) in the mid-20th century.<ref name="Tatum-2017" /> In the 1960s, Chicano graffiti artists from [[San Antonio]] to L.A. (especially in [[East LA]], [[Whittier, California|Whittier]], and [[Boyle Heights, Los Angeles|Boyle Heights]])<ref name="Alonso-1998">{{Cite journal|last=Alonso|first=Alex|date=14 February 1998|title=Urban Graffiti on the City Landscape|journal=Western Geography Graduate Conference|citeseerx=10.1.1.614.3042}}</ref> used the art form to challenge authority, tagging [[police car]]s, buildings, and subways as "a demonstration of their bravado and anger", understanding their work as "individual acts of pride or protest, gang declarations of territory or challenge, and weapons in a [[Class conflict|class war]]."<ref name="Vargas-2000" /><ref name="West-1988">{{Cite book|last=West|first=John O.|title=Mexican-American Folklore|publisher=August House|year=1988|isbn=9780874830590|pages=251–253}}</ref> Chicano graffiti artists wrote C/S as an abbreviation for ''con safos'' or the variant ''con safo'' (loosely meaning "don't touch this" and expressing a "the same to you" attitude)—a common expression among Chicanos on the [[Eastside Los Angeles|eastside]] of Los Angeles and throughout the Southwest.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Loza|first=Stephen Joseph|title=Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=1993|isbn=9780252062889|page=112}}</ref><ref name="West-1988" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cordova |first=Ruben C. |title=Con Safo: The Chicano Art Group and the Politics of South Texas. |publisher=UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780895511218 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref>
[[File:Self-Help-Graphics.png|thumb|[[Self Help Graphics & Art|Self-Help Graphics]], [[East Los Angeles, California|East Los Angeles]]]]
The [[Chicano Movement]] and political identity had heavily influenced Chicano artists by the 1970s. Alongside the Black arts movement, this led to the development of institutions such as [[Self Help Graphics & Art|Self-Help Graphics]], [[Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions]], and [[Plaza de la Raza]]. Artists such as [[Harry Gamboa Jr.]], [[Gronk (artist)|Gronk]], and [[Judith Baca]] created art which "stood in opposition to the commercial galleries, museums, and civic institutional mainstream".<ref name="Schrank-2009">{{Cite book|last=Schrank|first=Sarah|title=Art and the City: Civic Imagination and Cultural Authority in Los Angeles|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2009|isbn=9780812241174|page=165}}</ref> This was exemplified with [[Asco (art collective)|Asco]]'s tagging of [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art|LACMA]] after "a curator refused to even entertain the idea of a Chicano art show within its walls" in 1972.<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> Chicano art collectives such as the [[Royal Chicano Air Force]], founded in 1970 by [[Ricardo Favela]], [[José Montoya]] and [[Esteban Villa]], supported the [[United Farm Workers]] movement through [[art activism]], using art to create and inspire social change. Favela believed that it was important to keep the culture alive through their artwork. Favela stated "I was dealing with art forms very foreign to me, always trying to do [[western art]], but there was always something lacking... it was very simple: it was just my Chicano heart wanting to do Chicano art."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Orozco|first=Donna|date=3 March 2021|title=Arts Visalia celebrates influential Chicano artist Ricardo Favela, a Dinuba native|url=https://www.visaliatimesdelta.com/story/entertainment/arts/2021/03/03/arts-visalia-celebrates-chicano-artist-ricardo-favela/6894589002/|website=Visalia Times Delta|quote=Favela went on to found the Royal Chicano Air Force (FCAF) with Montoya and Estefan Villa along with others at Sac State.|access-date=24 March 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224858/https://www.visaliatimesdelta.com/story/entertainment/arts/2021/03/03/arts-visalia-celebrates-chicano-artist-ricardo-favela/6894589002/|url-status=live}}</ref> Other Chicano visual art collectives included Con Safo in [[San Antonio]], which included Felipe Reyes, [[José Esquivel]], Roberto Ríos, Jesse Almazán, Jesse "Chista" Cantú, Jose Garza, [[Mel Casas]], Rudy Treviño, [[César Martínez (artist)|César Martínez]], [[Kathy Vargas]], [[Amado M. Peña Jr.|Amado Peña Jr.]], Robando Briseño, and [[Roberto Gonzalez (artist and musician)|Roberto Gonzalez]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cordova |first=Ruben Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRDh9Gkn5NEC |title=Con Safo: The Chicano Art Group and the Politics of South Texas |date=2009 |publisher=UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center Press |isbn=9780895511218 |page=237 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Mujeres Muralistas]] in the [[Mission District, San Francisco]] included [[Patricia Rodriguez (artist)|Patricia Rodriguez]], [[Graciela Carrillo]], Consuelo Mendez, and [[Irene Pérez|Irene Perez]].<ref name="Cordova-1970">Cordova, Cary. "Hombres Y Mujeres Muralistas on a Mission: Painting Latino Identities in 1970s San Francisco." ''Latino Studies'' 4.4 (2006): 356-80. ''ProQuest.'' Web. 8 Nov. 2018.</ref>
[[File:MunozJaime.jpg|left|thumb|228x228px|Murals at [[Estrada Courts]]]]
Chicano [[mural]]ism, which began in the 1960s,<ref name="Gàndara-2002"/> became a state-sanctioned artform in the 1970s as an attempt by outsiders to "prevent gang violence and dissuade graffiti practices".<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> This led to the creation of murals at [[Estrada Courts]] and other sites throughout Chicano communities. In some instances, these murals were covered with the ''placas'' they were instituted by the state to prevent. Marcos Sanchez-Tranquilino states that "rather than vandalism, the tagging of one's own murals points toward a complex sense of wall ownership and a social tension created by the uncomfortable yet approving attentions of official cultural authority."<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> This created a division between established Chicano artists who celebrated inclusion and acceptance by the dominant culture and younger Chicano artists who "saw greater power in renegade muralism and ''[[Barrioization|barrio]]'' calligraphy than in state-sanctioned pieces."<ref name="Schrank-2009" /> Chicano poster art became prominent in the 1970s as a way to challenge political authority, with pieces such as Rupert García's ''Save Our Sister'' (1972), depicting [[Angela Davis]], and [[Yolanda M. López]]'s ''Who's the Illegal Alien, Pilgrim?'' (1978) addressing [[settler colonialism]].<ref name="Gàndara-2002"/>
[[File:Judith Baca.jpg|thumb|215x215px|[[Judy Baca]] (1988)]]
The oppositional current of Chicano art was bolstered in the 1980s by a rising [[hip hop]] culture.<ref name="Alonso-1998" /> The Olympic freeway murals, including [[Frank Romero]]'s ''Going to the Olympics'', created for the [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Olympic Games]] in Los Angeles became another site of contestation, as Chicano and other graffiti artists tagged the state-sanctioned public artwork. Government officials, muralists, and some residents were unable to understand the motivations for this, described it "as "mindless", "animalistic" vandalism perpetrated by "kids" who simply lack respect."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bloch|first=Stefano|date=21 August 2016|title=Why do Graffiti Writers Write on Murals? The Birth, Life, and Slow Death of Freeway Murals in Los Angeles|journal=International Journal of Urban and Regional Research|volume=40|issue=2|pages=451–471|doi=10.1111/1468-2427.12345}}</ref> L.A. had developed a distinct graffiti culture by the 1990s and, with the rise of drugs and violence, Chicano [[youth culture]] gravitated towards graffiti to express themselves and to mark their territory amidst state-sanctioned disorder.<ref name="SprayPlanet-2020">{{Cite web|date=18 February 2020|title=From Buses to River Walls: Graffiti in 1980's to Early-90's Los Angeles|url=https://www.sprayplanet.com/blogs/news/from-buses-to-river-walls-graffiti-in-1980s-to-early-90s-los-angeles|website=SprayPlanet|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922233233/https://www.sprayplanet.com/blogs/news/from-buses-to-river-walls-graffiti-in-1980s-to-early-90s-los-angeles|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="DiegoVigil-1988" /> Following the [[Rodney King Riots|Rodney King riots]] and the murder of [[Killing of Latasha Harlins|Latasha Harlins]], which exemplified an explosion of racial tensions bubbling under in American society, racialized youth in L.A., "feeling forgotten, angry, or marginalized, [embraced] graffiti's expressive power [as] a tool to push back."<ref name="SprayPlanet-2020" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Guanuna|first=Lucy|date=17 September 2015|title=Getting Up, Staying Up: History of Graffiti in the L.A. River|url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/earth-focus/getting-up-staying-up-history-of-graffiti-in-the-la-river|website=KCET|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=20 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020210606/https://www.kcet.org/shows/earth-focus/getting-up-staying-up-history-of-graffiti-in-the-la-river|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Nao Bustamonte on Dale Radio.jpg|left|thumb|185x185px|[[Nao Bustamante|Nao Bustamonte]], artist and performer (2012)]]
Chicano art, although accepted into some institutional art spaces in shows like [[Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation]], was still largely excluded from many mainstream art institutions in the 1990s.<ref name="Vargas-2000" /> By the 2000s, attitudes towards graffiti by white [[Hipster (contemporary subculture)|hipster]] culture were changing, as it became known as "street art". In academic circles, "street art" was termed "post-graffiti". By the 2000s, where the [[Los Angeles Police Department|LAPD]] once deployed CRASH ([[Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums]]) units in traditionally Chicano neighborhoods like [[Echo Park, Los Angeles|Echo Park]] and "often brutalized suspected taggers and gang members", ''street art'' was now being mainstreamed by the white art world in those same neighborhoods.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bloch|first=Stefano|title=Routledge Handbook of Graffiti and Street Art|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2016|isbn=9781317645856|pages=440–451|chapter=Challenging the defense of graffiti, in defense of graffiti}}</ref>[[File:Alma Lopez.jpg|thumb|205x205px|[[Alma López]] (2020)]]Despite this shift, Chicano artists continued to challenge what was acceptable to both insiders and outsiders of their communities. Controversy surrounding Chicana artist [[Alma López]]'s "Our Lady" at the [[Museum of International Folk Art]] in 2001 erupted when "local demonstrators demanded the image be removed from the state-run museum".<ref name="Limón-2013" /> Previously, López's digital mural "Heaven" (2000), which depicted two Latina women embracing, had been vandalized.<ref name="Jones-2015">{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Kevin L.|date=22 June 2015|title=Mission District Gallery's Queer Cholo Mural Defaced Again|url=https://www.kqed.org/arts/10788224/mission-district-gallerys-queer-cholo-mural-defaced-again|website=KQED|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613194634/https://www.kqed.org/arts/10788224/mission-district-gallerys-queer-cholo-mural-defaced-again|url-status=live}}</ref> López received [[Homophobia|homophobic]] slurs, threats of physical violence, and over 800 [[hate mail]] inquiries for "Our Lady." [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] Archbishop [[Michael Sheehan (archbishop of Santa Fe)|Michael J Sheehan]] referred to the woman in López's piece as "a tart or a street woman". López stated that the response came from the conservative [[Catholic Church]], "which finds women's bodies inherently sinful, and thereby promot[es] hatred of women's bodies." The art was again protested in 2011.<ref name="Limón-2013">{{Cite web|last=Limón|first=Enrique|date=2 July 2013|title=Shame As It Ever Was: Twelve years after "Our Lady" controversy, artist Alma López looks back|url=https://www.sfreporter.com/arts/artsvalve/2013/07/02/shame-as-it-ever-was/|website=Santa Fe Reporter|access-date=11 June 2020|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611210008/https://www.sfreporter.com/arts/artsvalve/2013/07/02/shame-as-it-ever-was/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:View_of_arch_symbol_Judy_Baca.jpg|left|thumb|194x194px|''[[Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice|The Arch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice]]'' by [[Judy Baca]] at [[San José State University]]]]
Manuel Paul's mural "Por Vida" (2015) at [[Galería de la Raza|Galeria de la Raza]] in [[Mission District, San Francisco]], which depicted queer and trans Chicanos, was targeted multiple times after its unveiling.<ref name="Jones-2015" /><ref name="Villarreal-2015">{{Cite web|last=Villarreal|first=Yezmin|date=18 June 2015|title=LGBT Latino Artists Threatened After San Francisco's Gay Cholo Chicano Mural Defaced|url=https://www.advocate.com/california/2015/06/18/lgbt-latino-artists-threatened-after-san-franciscos-gay-cholo-chicano-mural-de|website=Advocate|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613203818/https://www.advocate.com/california/2015/06/18/lgbt-latino-artists-threatened-after-san-franciscos-gay-cholo-chicano-mural-de|url-status=live}}</ref> Paul, a queer DJ and artist of the Maricón Collective, received online threats for the work. Ani Rivera, director of Galeria de la Raza, attributed the anger towards the mural to [[gentrification]], which has led "some people [to] associate LGBT people with non-Latino communities."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rivas|first=Jorge|date=17 June 2015|title=Gay cholo mural gets defaced in San Francisco after online threats|url=https://splinternews.com/gay-cholo-mural-gets-defaced-in-san-francisco-after-onl-1793848447|website=Splinter|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=13 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613203820/https://splinternews.com/gay-cholo-mural-gets-defaced-in-san-francisco-after-onl-1793848447|url-status=live}}</ref> The mural was meant to challenge "long-held assumptions regarding the traditional exclusivity of heterosexuality in lowrider culture".<ref name="Jones-2015" /> Some credited the negative response to the mural's direct challenging of [[machismo]] and [[heteronormativity]] in the community.<ref name="Villarreal-2015" />

[[Xandra Ibarra]]'s video art ''Spictacle II: La Tortillera'' (2004) was censored by [[San Antonio]]'s Department of Arts and Culture in 2020 from "XicanX: New Visions", a show which aimed to challenge "previous and existing surveys of Chicano and Latino identity-based exhibitions" through highlighting "the womxn, queer, immigrant, indigenous and activist artists who are at the forefront of the movement".<ref name="Rindfuss-2020">{{Cite web|last=Rindfuss|first=Bryan|date=22 February 2020|title=All You Need to Know About the "Obscene" Video Censored by San Antonio's Department of Arts and Culture — Including How to Watch It|url=https://www.sacurrent.com/ArtSlut/archives/2020/02/22/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-obscene-video-censored-by-san-antonios-department-of-arts-and-culture-including-how-to-watch-it|website=San Antonio Current|access-date=13 June 2020|archive-date=9 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509022019/https://www.sacurrent.com/ArtSlut/archives/2020/02/22/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-obscene-video-censored-by-san-antonios-department-of-arts-and-culture-including-how-to-watch-it|url-status=dead}}</ref> Ibarra stated "the video is designed to challenge normative ideals of Mexican womanhood and is in alignment with the historical lineage of LGBTQAI+ artists' strategies to intervene in homophobic and sexist violence."<ref name="Rindfuss-2020" />