Editing Augustin-Jean Fresnel (section)

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=academie>Académie des Sciences, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_oeuvre.htm "Augustin Fresnel"], accessed 21 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215201835/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_oeuvre.htm archived] 15 February 2017.</ref>

<ref name=academie-hist>Académie des Sciences, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/en/Histoire-de-l-Academie-des-sciences/history-of-the-french-academie-des-sciences.html "History of the French Académie des sciences"], accessed 8 December 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170813034716/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/en/Histoire-de-l-Academie-des-sciences/history-of-the-french-academie-des-sciences.html archived] 13 August 2017.</ref>

<ref name=academie-pv6>Académie des Sciences, ''Proces-verbaux des séances de l'Académie tenues depuis la fondation de l'Institut jusqu'au mois d'août 1835'', [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3299b vol.&nbsp;{{serif|VI}}] (for&nbsp;1816–19), Hendaye, Basses Pyrénées: Imprimerie de l'Observatoire d'Abbadia, 1915.</ref>

<ref name=airy-1834>G.B. Airy, [https://archive.org/stream/transactionsofca05camb#page/283/mode/2up "On the diffraction of an object-glass with circular aperture"], ''Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society'', vol.{{hsp}}{{serif|V}}, part&nbsp;{{serif|III}} (1835), pp.&nbsp;283–291 (read 24 November 1834).</ref>

<ref name=antoniadi-1927>Opening sentence in{{tsp}} E.M.&nbsp;Antoniadi, "Le centenaire d'Augustin Fresnel", ''L'Astronomie'' (Paris), vol.&nbsp;41, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1927LAstr..41..241A pp.&nbsp;241–246] (June&nbsp;1927), translated as "The centenary of Augustin Fresnel" in ''Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution'', Washington, 1927, [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.279578#page/n239/mode/2up pp.&nbsp;217–220].</ref>

<ref name=appleton-1861>D. Appleton &amp; Co., [https://archive.org/stream/appletonsdiction02appl#page/606/mode/2up "Sea-lights"], ''Dictionary of Machines, Mechanics, Engine-work, and Engineering'', 1861, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;606–618.</ref>

<ref name=assis-chaib-2015>A.K.T. Assis and J.P.M.C. Chaib, ''Ampère's Electrodynamics'' ("Analysis of the meaning and evolution of Ampère’s force between current elements, together with a complete translation of his masterpiece: ''Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience''"), Montreal: Apeiron, 2015.</ref>

<ref name=bibmed>Bibliothèques et Médiathèque, "Inauguration à Broglie, le 14 Septembre 1884 du buste d'Augustin Fresnel", [https://web.archive.org/web/20180728101313/http://www.culture-evreux.fr/EXPLOITATION/Default/doc/ALOES/1587928/inauguration-a-broglie-le-14-septembre-1884-du-buste-d-augustin-fresnel archived] 28 July 2018.</ref>

<ref name=biot-1819>J.-B. Biot, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ubtHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA177 "Mémoire sur les lois générales de la double réfraction et de la polarisation, dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés"] (read 29 March 1819), ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences…'', vol.&nbsp;{{serif|III}} (for {{sic|1818}}, printed 1820), pp.&nbsp;177–384; [https://archive.org/details/bulletin25parigoog/page/n20 <!-- pg=12 --> "Extrait d'un Mémoire sur les lois de la double réfraction et de la polarisation dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés"], ''Bulletin des Sciences par la Société Philomathique de Paris'', 1820, pp.&nbsp;12–16, including pp.&nbsp;13–14 (sine law), 15–16 (dihedral law).</ref>

<ref name="brewster-1815a">{{Cite journal |last=Brewster |first=David |date=31 December 1815 |title=V. On the effects of simple pressure in producing that species of crystallization which forms two oppositely polarised images, and exhibits the complementary colours by polarised light. |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=105 |pages=60–64 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 |issn=0261-0523 |jstor=107358 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="brewster-1815b">{{Cite journal |last=Brewster |first=David |date=31 December 1815 |title=IX. On the laws which regulate the polarisation of light by reflexion from transparent bodies. |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1815.0010 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=105 |pages=125–159 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1815.0010 |issn=0261-0523 |jstor=107362 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name="brewster-1816">{{Cite journal |last=Brewster |first=David |date=31 December 1816 |title=X. On the communication of the structure of doubly refracting crystals to glass, muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other substances, by mechanical compression and dilatation |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=106 |pages=156–178 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 |issn=0261-0523 |jstor=107522 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=brewster-1817>Item re{{hsp}} Brewster, [https://books.google.com/books?id=KBE_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213 "On a new species of moveable polarization"], ''{{bracket|Quarterly}} Journal of Science and the Arts'', vol.&nbsp;2, no.&nbsp;3, 1817, p.&nbsp;213.</ref>

<!-- <ref name="brewster-1818">{{Cite journal |last=Brewster |first=David |date=31 December 1818 |title=XIII. On the laws of polarisation and double refraction in regularly crystallized bodies |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1818.0015 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=108 |pages=199–273 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1818.0015 |issn=0261-0523 |jstor=107469 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> -->

<ref name=brock-1909>H.M. Brock, [[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Augustin-Jean Fresnel|"Fresnel, Augustin-Jean"]], ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1907–12, vol.&nbsp;6&nbsp;(1909).</ref>

<ref name="buchwald-1980">{{Cite journal |last=Buchwald |first=Jed Z. |date=1 December 1980 |title=Experimental investigations of double refraction from Huygens to Malus |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00595375 |journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences |language=en |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=311–373 |doi=10.1007/BF00595375 |issn=1432-0657}} As the author notes, alternative rules for the extraordinary refraction were offered by La&nbsp;Hire in 1710 and by Haüy in 1788 (see pp.&nbsp;332–334, 335–337, respectively).</ref>

<ref name="buchwald-1989b">{{Cite journal |last=Buchwald |first=J Z |date=May 1989 |title=The battle between Arago and Biot over Fresnel |url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0150-536X/20/3/002 |journal=Journal of Optics |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=109–117 |doi=10.1088/0150-536X/20/3/002 |bibcode=1989JOpt...20..109B |issn=0150-536X}}</ref>

<ref name=chisholm-1911-brewster>{{cite EB1911|mode=cs2|wstitle=Brewster, Sir David|volume=4|pages=513–514}}.</ref>

<ref name=chisholm-1911-fresnel>{{cite EB1911|mode=cs2|wstitle=Fresnel, Augustin Jean|volume=11|page=209}}.</ref>

<ref name=chisholm-1911-lighthouse>{{cite EB1911|mode=cs2|wstitle=Lighthouse|volume=16|pages=627–651}}.</ref>

<ref name=condorcet-1790>N. de Condorcet, [https://books.google.com/books?id=o99ZAAAAcAAJ ''Éloge de M.&nbsp;le Comte de Buffon''], Paris: Chez&nbsp;Buisson, 1790, pp.&nbsp;11–12.</ref>

<ref name="deWitte-1959">{{Cite journal |last=de Witte |first=A. J. |date=1 May 1959 |title=Equivalence of Huygens' Principle and Fermat's Principle in Ray Geometry |url=https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1934839 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=293–301 |doi=10.1119/1.1934839 |bibcode=1959AmJPh..27..293D |issn=0002-9505}}''Erratum'': In Fig.&nbsp;7(b), each instance of "ray" should be "normal" (noted in vol.&nbsp;27, no.&nbsp;6, p.&nbsp;387).</ref>

<ref name=derochette-2004>For illustrations see J.M. Derochette, [http://jm-derochette.be/Conoscopy/Biaxial_minerals.htm "Conoscopy of biaxial minerals (1)"], ''[http://www.jm-derochette.be www.jm-derochette.be]'', 2004; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170501043919/http://jm-derochette.be/Conoscopy/Biaxial_minerals.htm archived] 1 May 2017.</ref>

<ref name=favre>J.H. Favre, "Augustin Fresnel", ''geneanet.org'', accessed 30 August 2017.</ref>

<ref name=fresnel-1817>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed & submitted 10 November 1817, read 24 November 1817; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;441–485, including pp.&nbsp;452 (rediscovery of depolarization by total internal reflection), 455 (two reflections, "coupled prisms", "parallelepiped in glass"), 467–8 (phase difference per reflection); see also p.&nbsp;487, note&nbsp;1 (date of reading). Kipnis (1991, p.&nbsp;217n) confirms the reading and adds that the paper was published in 1821.</ref>

<ref name=fresnel-1818jan>A. Fresnel, "Supplément au Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Supplement to the Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed 15 January 1818, submitted for witnessing 19 January 1818; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;487–508.</ref>

<ref name=fresnel-1822s>A. Fresnel, "Note sur la double réfraction du verre comprimé" ("Note on the double refraction of compressed glass"), read 16 September 1822, published 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;713–718, at pp.&nbsp;715–717.</ref>

<ref name=fresnel-1822z>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la double réfraction que les rayons lumineux éprouvent en traversant les aiguilles de cristal de roche suivant les directions parallèles à l'axe" ("Memoir on the double refraction that light rays undergo in traversing the needles of rock crystal {{bracket|quartz}} in directions parallel to the axis"), read 9 December 1822; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;731–751 (full text), pp.&nbsp;719–29 (extract, first published in ''Bulletin de la Société philomathique'' for 1822, pp.&nbsp;191–198).</ref>

<ref name=fresnel-1823a>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la loi des modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the law of the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), read 7 January 1823; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;767–799 (full text, published 1831), pp.&nbsp;753–762 (extract, published 1823). See especially pp.&nbsp;773 (sine law), 757 (tangent law), 760–761 and 792–796 (angles of total internal reflection for given phase differences).</ref>

<ref name=gombert-2017>D. Gombert, photograph of the [https://www.flickr.com/photos/gebete29/32970312394/in/photostream/ ''Optique de Cordouan''] in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200314154024/http://www.pnr-armorique.fr/Visiter/Musees-maisons-a-themes/Musee-des-Phares-et-Balises/collection-du-musee collection of the ''Musée des Phares et Balises''], [[Ushant|Ouessant]], France, 23 March 2017.</ref>

<ref name=griffin-1842>W.N. Griffin, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx5kAAAAcAAJ ''The Theory of Double Refraction''], Cambridge: T.&nbsp;Stevenson, 1842.</ref>

<ref name=hamilton-1832>W.R. Hamilton, "Third supplement to an essay on the theory of systems of rays", ''Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy'', vol.&nbsp;17, pp.&nbsp;v–x,{{tsp}}1–144, read 23 Jan.{{tsp}}& 22 Oct.{{tsp}}1832; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30078785 jstor.org/stable/30078785] (author's introduction dated June 1833; volume started 1831{{tsp}}(?), completed 1837).</ref>

<ref name=herschel-light>J.F.W. Herschel, "Light", ''Encyclopædia Metropolitana'', vol.&nbsp;4 (London, 1845; re-issued 1849), pp.&nbsp;341–586;&nbsp; [https://archive.org/details/treatisesonphysi00hersrich/page/n191 reprinted] (with original page numbers and appended plates) in J.F.W.&nbsp;Herschel, ''Treatises on Physical Astronomy, Light and Sound, contributed to the Encyclopædia Metropolitana'',&nbsp; London and Glasgow: R.{{tsp}}Griffin & Co. (undated).</ref>

<ref name=iau-wgpsn>[[International Astronomical Union|IAU WGPSN]], [https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4842 "Promontorium Fresnel"] and [https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5106 "Rimae Fresnel"], ''Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature'', accessed 19 December 2017.</ref>

<ref name=jamesCMF>James Clerk Maxwell Foundation, [http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/about_maxwell.html "Who was James Clerk Maxwell?"], accessed 6 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630003106/http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/about_maxwell.html archived] 30 June 2017.</ref>

<ref name=jamin-1884>J. Jamin, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_pdf/Fresnel_eloge_1884.pdf ''Discours prononcé au nom de l'Académie des Sciences à l'inauguration du monument de Fresnel''], Broglie, 14 September 1884; accessed 6 September 2017.</ref>

<ref name=jeanelie>{{tsp}}'jeanelie' (author), "Augustine Charlotte Marie Louise Merimee" and "Louis Jacques Fresnel", ''geneanet.org'', accessed 30 August 2017.</ref>

<ref name=jordan-1799>Presumably{{tsp}} G.W.{{tsp}}Jordan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWJiAAAAcAAJ ''The Observations of Newton Concerning the Inflections of Light; Accompanied by Other Observations Differing from His; and Appearing to Lead to a Change of His Theory of Light and Colours''] (also cited as ''New Observations concerning the Inflections of Light''), London: T.&nbsp;Cadell&nbsp;Jr. & W.&nbsp;Davies, 1799;&nbsp; reviewed in T.G.&nbsp;Smollett&nbsp;(ed.), ''The Critical Review, Or, Annals of Literature'' (London), [https://books.google.com/books?id=C4RHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA436 vol.&nbsp;34, pp.&nbsp;436–443] (April 1802).</ref>

<ref name=joubert-1885>J. Joubert (ed.), ''Collection de Mémoires relatifs à la Physique'', vol.&nbsp;2 (being Part&nbsp;1 of ''Mémoires sur l'électrodynamique''), Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1885, pp.&nbsp;140 (Ampère's acknowledgment), 141–147 (Fresnel's notes).</ref>

<ref name=kipnis-2003>N. Kipnis, "Physical optics", in I.&nbsp;Grattan-Guinness&nbsp;(ed.), ''Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences'',{{tsp}} JHU&nbsp;Press, 2003, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;1143–1152.</ref>

<ref name=lloyd-1841>H. Lloyd, [https://archive.org/details/lecturesonwavet00lloygoog ''Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light''], Dublin: Milliken, 1841, Part&nbsp;{{serif|II}}, Lecture&nbsp;{{serif|III}}, p. 26. The same description was retained in the "second edition", published under the title [https://archive.org/details/wavetheorylight00lloyrich ''Elementary Treatise on the Wave-theory of Light''] (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857; p.&nbsp;136), and in the [https://archive.org/details/elementarytreati00lloyrich "third edition"] (London: Longmans, Green, &amp; Co., 1873; p.&nbsp;167), which appeared in the same year as Maxwell's ''Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism''.</ref>

<ref name="lunney-weaire-2006">{{Cite journal |last1=Lunney |first1=James G. |last2=Weaire |first2=Denis |date=1 May 2006 |title=The ins and outs of conical refraction |url=https://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/abs/2006/03/epn06305/epn06305.html |journal=Europhysics News |language=en |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=26–29 |doi=10.1051/epn:2006305 |issn=0531-7479|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006ENews..37c..26L }}</ref>

<ref name="macCullagh-1830">{{Cite journal |last=MacCullagh |first=James |date=1830 |title=On the Double Refraction of Light in a Crystallized Medium, according to the Principles of Fresnel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30079025 |journal=The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy |volume=16 |pages=65–78 |issn=0790-8113 |jstor=30079025 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=martan-2014>{{tsp}}'martan' (author), [http://maisons.natales.over-blog.com/2014/05/eure-27.html "Eure&nbsp;(27)"], ''Guide National des Maisons Natales'', 30 May 2014.</ref>

<ref name=musee>Musée national de la Marine, [http://mnm.webmuseo.com/ws/musee-national-marine/app/collection/record/9067 "Appareil catadioptrique, Appareil du canal Saint-Martin"], accessed 26 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170826030358/http://mnm.webmuseo.com/ws/musee-national-marine/app/collection/record/9067 archived] 26 August 2017.</ref>

<ref name="newton-1672e">{{Cite journal |last=Newton |first=Isaac |date=18 November 1672 |title=Mr. Isaac Newtons answer to some considerations upon his doctrine of light and colors; which doctrine was printed in Numb. 80 of these tracts |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1672.0051 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |language=en |volume=7 |issue=88 |pages=5084–5103 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1672.0051 |issn=0261-0523 |jstor=100964 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=perchet-2011>D. Perchet, [https://e-monumen.net/patrimoine-monumental/monument-a-augustin-fresnel-broglie/ "Monument à Augustin Fresnel – Broglie"], ''e-monumen.net'', 5 July 2011.</ref>

<ref name=pharedeC>Phare de Cordouan, [http://www.phare-de-cordouan.fr/lighting-systems.html "The lighting systems of the Cordouan Lighthouse"], accessed 26 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20160922153001/http://www.phare-de-cordouan.fr/lighting-systems.html archived] 22 September 2016.</ref>

<ref name="reilly-1951">{{Cite journal |last=Reilly |first=D. |date=December 1951 |title=Salts, acids & alkalis in the 19th century; a comparison between advances in France, England & Germany |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14888349/ |journal=Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences |volume=42 |issue=130 |pages=287–296 |doi=10.1086/349348 |issn=0021-1753 |pmid=14888349}}</ref>

<ref name=rines-1919>G.E. Rines (ed.), "Fresnel, Augustin Jean", ''Encyclopedia Americana'', 1918–20, vol.&nbsp;12 (1919), [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89094370657;view=1up;seq=111 p.93]. (This entry inaccurately describes Fresnel as the "discoverer" of polarization of light and as a "Fellow" of the Royal Society, whereas in fact he ''explained'' polarization and was a "Foreign Member" of the Society; see text.)</ref>

<ref name=ripley-dana-1879>G. Ripley and C.A.&nbsp;Dana (eds.), [https://archive.org/stream/americancyclopae07ripluoft#page/486/mode/2up "Fresnel, Augustin Jean"], ''American Cyclopædia'', 1879, vol.&nbsp;7, pp.&nbsp;486–489. Contrary to this entry&nbsp;(p.&nbsp;486), calcite and quartz were ''not'' the only doubly refractive crystals known before Fresnel; see (e.g.) Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;250 (written 1810) and pp.&nbsp;262,{{px2}}266,{{px2}}277 (written 1814), and Lloyd, 1834, pp.&nbsp;376–377.</ref>

<ref name=royalS-2007>Royal Society, ''List of Fellows of the Royal Society 1660–2007'', [https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/fellowship/Fellows1660-2007.pdf A–J], July 2007, p.&nbsp;130.</ref>

<ref name=royalS-rumford>Royal Society, [https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/rumford-medal/ "Rumford Medal"] (with link to full list of past winners), accessed 2 September 2017.</ref>

<ref name=tag-2017>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/chronology-lighthouse-events "Chronology of Lighthouse Events"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 22 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170408105558/http://uslhs.org/chronology-lighthouse-events archived] 8 April 2017.</ref>

<ref name=tag-prior>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/lens-use-prior-fresnel "Lens use prior to Fresnel"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170520114102/http://uslhs.org/lens-use-prior-fresnel archived] 20 May 2017.</ref>

<ref name=tag-fres>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/fresnel-lens "The Fresnel lens"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20160722002916/http://uslhs.org/fresnel-lens archived] 22 July 2017.</ref>

<ref name=tag-us>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/american-made-fresnel-lenses-0 "American-Made Fresnel Lenses"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 1&nbsp;March 2021; [https://web.archive.org/web/20210221163206/https://uslhs.org/american-made-fresnel-lenses-0 archived] 21 February 2021.</ref>

<ref name=watson-2016>B. Watson, ''Light: A Radiant History from Creation to the Quantum Age'', New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.</ref>

<ref name=young-1801>T. Young, [http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/92/12.full.pdf "On the Theory of Light and Colours"] (Bakerian Lecture), ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', vol.&nbsp;92 (1802), pp.&nbsp;12–48, read 12 November 1801.</ref>

<ref name=young-1818>T. Young, "Chromatics" (written Sep.–{{hsp}}Oct.{{hsp}}1817), ''Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica'', vol.&nbsp;3 (issued February 1818), reprinted in Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;279–342.</ref>

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