Editing Aristotle (section)

=== Medieval ===
==== Medieval Byzantine empire ====
{{See also|Byzantine Aristotelianism}}
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by [[Eustratius of Nicaea|Eustratius]] and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pp=20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–408}} Byzantine philosophers also filled in the gaps in the commentaries that had survived down to their time; Alexander of Aphrodisias' commentary on the Metaphysics, of which only the first five books survived, was completed by Michael of Ephesus, who also wrote a commentary on the [[Sophistical Refutations]], the only work of the [[Organon]] not to have a commentary, and Michael of Ephesus and Eustratius compiled a number of fragmentary commentaries on the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' which they supplemented with their own interpretations. Michael of Ephesus also wrote commentaries on the works of Aristotle's animal biology and the ''Politics'', completing the series of commentaries on Aristotle's extant works.{{sfn|Ierodiakonou|2008}}

==== Medieval Islamic world ====
{{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}}
[[File:Ibn Bakhtīshūʿ, Kitāb naʿt al-ḥayawān probably Baghdad, c. 1225. London, British Library, Or. 2784, A student sitting with Aristotle (right).jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right) in the ''[[Kitāb naʿt al-ḥayawān]]'', {{circa|1220|lk=no}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Contadini |first1=Anna |title=A World of Beasts: A Thirteenth-Century Illustrated Arabic Book on Animals (the Kitāb Na't al-Ḥayawān) in the Ibn Bakhtīshū' Tradition |date=1 January 2012 |doi=10.1163/9789004222656_005 |publisher=Brill |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004222656_005 |page=75}}</ref>]]

Aristotle's works also underwent a revival in the [[Abbasid Caliphate]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gutas |first=Dimitri |title=The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early 'Abbasaid Society |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-06133-9 |edition=1stglish}}</ref> Translated into Arabic, Aristotle's logic, ethics, and natural philosophy inspired early Islamic scholars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |date=13 February 2017 |title=The Reception of Aristotelian Science in Early Islam: A Historical Account |url=https://www.ihc.ucsb.edu/reception-of-aristotelian-science/ |access-date=27 January 2024 |website=Interdisciplinary Humanities Center UCSB}}</ref> Aristotle is considered the most influential figure in the history of Arabic philosophy and was revered in early [[Islamic theology]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Alwishah |first1=Ahmed |last2=Hayes |first2=Josh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QXPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Aristotle and the Arabic Tradition |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-10173-9 |location= |pages=1}}</ref> Most surviving works of Aristotle,{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} as well as some of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists, and scholars. Through commentaries and critical engagements, figures like [[Al-Kindi]],{{sfn|Staley|1989}} [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna), and [[Averroes]]{{sfn|Averroes|1953|p=III, 2, 43}} breathed new life into Aristotle's ideas. They harmonized his logic with Islamic theology, employed his scientific methodology to explore the natural world, and reinterpreted his ethics within the framework of Islamic morality. Islamic thinkers embraced Aristotle's rigorous methods while challenging his conclusions where they diverged from their religious beliefs,<ref>{{cite book |last=Fakhry |first=Majid |title=A History of Islamic Philosophy |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-231-05533-8 |edition=2nd}}</ref> which later influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in [[Dante]]'s poem) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}}

==== Medieval Judaism ====
[[Moses Maimonides]] (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Moses Maimonides |encyclopedia=Britannica |date=26 March 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Maimonides}}</ref> adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his ''[[Guide for the Perplexed]]'' on it and that became the basis of Jewish [[scholastic philosophy]]. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers".<ref>Levi ben Gershom, The Wars of the Lord: Book one, Immortality of the soul, p. 35.</ref><ref>Leon Simon, Aspects Of The Hebrew Genius: A Volume Of Essays On Jewish Literature And Thought (1910), p. 127.</ref><ref>Herbert A. Davidson, Herbert A. |q (Herbert Alan) Davidson, Professor of Hebrew Emeritus Herbert Davidson, Moses Maimonides: The Man and His Works, p. 98.</ref> Also, in his letter to [[Samuel ibn Tibbon]], Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher".<ref>Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.</ref>

==== Medieval Western Europe ====
[[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg| thumb | upright=0.8 | First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]]
{{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}}

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from {{Circa|CE 600}} to {{Circa|1100}} except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],{{sfn|Hasse|2014}} and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.bc.edu/~solere/docs/medieval_chronology.pdf |title=Medieval Chronology |access-date=2007-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060917002914/http://www2.bc.edu/~solere/docs/medieval_chronology.pdf |website=bc.edu |archive-date=2006-09-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[William of Moerbeke]].<ref>"Aristutalis" in ''Encyclopedia of Islam'' 2nd. ed. Brill, Leiden, Vol. 1 p. 631.</ref>

After the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",{{sfn|Aquinas|2013}} the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].{{sfn|Kuhn|2018}} These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic.{{sfn|Lagerlund |2016}}

According to scholar Roger Theodore Lafferty, [[Dante]] built up the philosophy of the ''[[Divine Comedy|Comedy]]'' on a foundation of Aristotle, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of [[Albert Magnus]].<ref>Lafferty, Roger. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40165857.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A55f6bfc22f02768d5dcdc92005228933 The Philosophy of Dante]", p. 4</ref> Dante acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''.<ref>''Inferno'', Canto XI, lines 70–115, Mandelbaum translation.</ref> Dante refers to him as "he / Who is acknowledged Master of those who know".<ref>''Inferno'', Canto IV, lines 115-16 trans., 131 original, Robert Pinksky translation (1994); note to line, p.384</ref>{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|page=74}}