Editing Xenophobia (section)

=== Europe ===
{{See also|Racism in Europe|Antisemitism in Europe|Anti-Romani sentiment}}[[File:Demonstrace za slušné Česko – demise Andreje Babiše 2.jpg|thumb|Pro-EU Czechs protest in [[Prague]] against politicians accused of pro-Russian sympathies, 17 November 2018. The sign reads: "...all [[Russians]]...go away from the Czech Republic or die!"]]

A study that ran from 2002 to 2015 mapped the countries in Europe with the highest incidents of racial bias towards black people, based on data from 288,076 white Europeans. It used the [[Implicit-association test]] (a reaction-based psychological test designed to measure implicit racial bias). The strongest bias was found in [[Czech Republic]], [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Malta]], [[Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Italy]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Waugh |first1=Rob |title=This map shows the most racist countries in Europe (and how Britain ranks) |url=http://metro.co.uk/2017/05/03/this-map-shows-the-most-racist-countries-in-europe-and-how-britain-ranks-6612608/ |website=Metro |date=3 May 2017 |location=UK |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref> A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of antisemitic violence in Western Europe".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antisemitic Violence in Europe, 2005–2015 Exposure and Perpetrators in France, UK, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Russia|url=http://www.hlsenteret.no/publikasjoner/digitale-hefter/antisemittisk-vold-i-europa_engelsk_endelig-versjon.pdf|access-date=18 May 2021|archive-date=13 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013210540/https://www.hlsenteret.no/publikasjoner/digitale-hefter/antisemittisk-vold-i-europa_engelsk_endelig-versjon.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Negative views of [[Muslim]]s have varied across different parts of Europe, and [[Islamophobia|Islamophobic]] hate crimes have been reported across the region.<ref>{{cite news |date=6 March 2020 |title=Why Is Europe So Islamophobic? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/opinion/europe-islamophobia-attacks.html}}</ref> A 2017 [[Chatham House]] poll of more than 10,000 people in 10 European countries had on average 55% agreeing that all further migration from [[Muslim world|Muslim-majority countries]] should be stopped, while 20% disagreed. Majority opposition was found in Poland (71%), Austria (65%), Belgium (64%), Hungary (64%), France (61%), Greece (58%), Germany (53%), and Italy (51%).<ref>{{Cite news |title=What Do Europeans Think About Muslim Immigration? |language=en |work=[[Chatham House]] |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/2017/02/what-do-europeans-think-about-muslim-immigration}}</ref>
{{bar box
|title=Unfavorable views of Muslims, 2019<ref>{{cite news |title=European Public Opinion Three Decades After the Fall of Communism — 6. Minority groups |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2019/10/14/minority-groups/ |work=Pew Research Center |date=14 October 2019}}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1='''Country'''
|right1='''Percent'''
|width=400px
|bars=

{{bar percent|[[Poland]]|peru|66}}
{{bar percent|[[Czech Republic]]|peru|64}}
{{bar percent|[[Hungary]]|peru|58}}
{{bar percent|[[Greece]]|peru|57}}
{{bar percent|[[Lithuania]]|peru|56}}
{{bar percent|Italy|peru|55}}
{{bar percent|Spain|darkorange|42}}
{{bar percent|Sweden|orange|28}}
{{bar percent|Germany|gold|24}}
{{bar percent|France|gold|22}}
{{bar percent|Russia|gold|19}}
{{bar percent|United Kingdom|gold|18}}

}}

==== Belgium ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Belgium|1980 Antwerp summer camp attack|Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting}}
There were recorded well over a hundred antisemitic attacks in [[Belgium]] in 2009. This was a 100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant background from the Middle East. In 2009, the Belgian city of [[Antwerp]], often referred to as Europe's last [[shtetl]], experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. [[Bloeme Evers-Emden]], an Amsterdam resident and [[Auschwitz]] survivor, was quoted in the newspaper ''[[Aftenposten]]'' in 2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]]. The antisemitism has become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us."<ref name="aftenposten.no">{{cite web |author=AV: per kr. aale |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece |title=Hets av jøder er økende i Europa |work=Aftenposten |access-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120411225535/http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3584266.ece |archive-date=11 April 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== France ====
{{Main|Racism in France}}
{{Further|Antisemitism in France}}
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were publicized around the world.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3880585.stm Chirac vows to fight race attacks] BBC. 9 July 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3586543.stm |title=Anti-Semitism 'on rise in Europe' |work=BBC News |date=31 March 2004 |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref><ref name=NYT-Smith>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/26/international/26antisemitism.html |work=The New York Times |first=Craig S. |last=Smith |title=Jews in France Feel Sting as Anti-Semitism Surges Among Children of Immigrants |date=26 March 2006 |access-date=10 April 2014}}</ref> In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children.<ref name=NYT-Smith /> The climax was reached when [[Ilan Halimi]] was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In 2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing antisemitism in France.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |title=French Jews petition U.S. for asylum |publisher=[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] | date=20 March 2007 |access-date=10 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905044711/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2007/03/20/100725/Frenchpetition |archive-date=5 September 2012 }}</ref>

In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France, more than the whole of 2008.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091217075855/http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1260447430597&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull Anti-semitism is making a loud comeback] ''The Jerusalem Post''. 13 December 2009</ref> Speaking to the [[World Jewish Congress]] in December 2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting racism and antisemitism.<ref>[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 French interior minister says anti-Semitism at an alarming level] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607011253/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8718 |date=7 June 2011 }} 14 December 2009</ref>

==== Germany ====
{{Main|Racism in Germany}}
{{Further|Antisemitism in 21st century Germany}}
The period after Germany's loss of [[World War I]] led to the increased espousal of [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] and other forms of racism in the country's political discourse, for example, emotions which were initially expressed by members of the right-wing [[Freikorps]] finally culminated in the ascent of [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi Party]] in 1933. The [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nazi Party's racial policy]] and the [[Nuremberg Laws|Nuremberg Race Laws]] against Jews and other non-[[Aryan race|Aryans]] represented the most explicit racist policies in twentieth century Europe. These laws deprived all Jews (including half-Jews and quarter-Jews) and all other non-Aryans of German citizenship. The official title of Jews became "subjects of the state". At first, the Nuremberg Race Laws only forbade racially mixed sexual relationships and marriages between Aryans and Jews but later they were extended to "[[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Black people|Negroes]] or their bastard offspring".<ref name="Burleigh1991">{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Burleigh |title=The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 |date=7 November 1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-39802-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 49] |url=https://archive.org/details/racialstate00mich/page/49 }}</ref> Such interracial relationships were known as "racial pollution" [[Rassenschande]], and they became a criminal and punishable offence under the race laws.<ref name="Burleigh1991" /><ref>{{cite book |first=S. H. |last=Milton |chapter="Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany |title=Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany |editor=Robert Gellately and Nathan Stoltzfus |year=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-08684-2 |pages=216, 231}}</ref> The Nazi racial theory regarded [[Polish people|Poles]] and other [[Slavs|Slavic peoples]] as racially inferior ''[[Untermensch]]en''. Nazi Germany's Directive No.1306 stated: "Polishness equals subhumanity. Poles, Jews and gypsies are on the same inferior level."<ref>From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941 (1997), by Sheldon Dick ed. [[Bernd Wegner]], p.50</ref>

After the 1950s the steady arrival of Turkish workers led to xenophobia.<ref name=":0" />

According to a 2012 survey, 18% of [[Turks in Germany]] believe that Jews are inferior human beings.<ref>Liljeberg Research International: [https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf ''Deutsch-Türkische Lebens und Wertewelten 2012''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112234/https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf |date=11 October 2012 }}, July/August 2012, p. 68</ref><ref>[[Die Welt]]: [https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108659406/Tuerkische-Migranten-hoffen-auf-muslimische-Mehrheit.html ''Türkische Migranten hoffen auf muslimische Mehrheit''], 17 August 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2012</ref>

==== Hungary ====
Anti-refugee sentiment has been strong in Hungary,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/buffett/hungary/hungarian-identity/|title=Hungarian views deeply impacted by country's history|work=Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/9089/hungary-refugees-not-welcome|title=Hungary: 'Refugees not welcome'|date=9 May 2018|website=InfoMigrants|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> and Hungarian authorities along the border have been accused of detaining migrants under harsh conditions<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.boell.de/en/2018/01/03/hungary-2017-detained-refugees-persecuted-ngos-lack-legal-certainty|title=Hungary 2017: Detained refugees, persecuted NGOs, lack of legal certainty {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung|website=Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref> with some reported instances of beatings and other violence from the guards.<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=Refugee crisis: Hungary uses water cannon as people head to Serbian border |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEeW0-gFHKI |type=News |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/OEeW0-gFHKI |publisher=[[Channel 4 News]] |access-date=4 December 2019 |via=[[YouTube]] |archive-date=11 December 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-hungary-border-police-guards-fence-beating-asylum-seekers-migrants-serbia-push-back-a7610411.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-hungary-border-police-guards-fence-beating-asylum-seekers-migrants-serbia-push-back-a7610411.html |archive-date=7 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Hungarian border guards 'taking selfies with beaten migrants'|date=4 March 2017|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=4 December 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://budapestbeacon.com/hungarian-police-accused-of-beating-torturing-refugees/|title=Hungarian police accused of beating, torturing refugees|last=Sentinel|first=-Budapest|date=6 March 2017|website=The Budapest Beacon|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204111451/https://budapestbeacon.com/hungarian-police-accused-of-beating-torturing-refugees/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Surveys from Pew Research Center have also suggested that negative views of refugees and Muslims are held by the majority of the country's locals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/|title=Europeans Fear Wave of Refugees Will Mean More Terrorism, Fewer Jobs|date=11 July 2016|website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/09/19/a-majority-of-europeans-favor-taking-in-refugees-but-most-disapprove-of-eus-handling-of-the-issue/|title=Europeans support taking in refugees – but not EU's handling of issue|website=Pew Research Center|date=19 September 2018 |language=en-US|access-date=4 December 2019}}</ref>

As in other European countries, the [[Romani people]] faced disadvantages, including unequal treatment, discrimination, segregation and harassment. Negative stereotypes are often linked to Romani unemployment and reliance on state benefits.<ref name="FRA">{{cite news |url=http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2013-thematic-situation-report-3_en_1.pdf |title=Racism, discrimination, intolerance and extremism: learning from experiences in Greece and Hungary |publisher=European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) |date=December 2013 |access-date=22 February 2014}}</ref> In 2008 and 2009 nine attacks took place against Romani in Hungary, resulting in six deaths and multiple injuries. According to the Hungarian curia (supreme court), these murders were motivated by [[Antiziganism|anti-Romani sentiment]] and sentenced the perpetrators to [[life imprisonment]].<ref name="FRA" />

==== Italy ====
{{Main|Racism in Italy}}

A new party emerged in the 1980s, [[Lega Nord]]. According to Gilda Zazzara, it started with identity-based claims and secessionist proposals for the north to break away from southern Italy. It shifted to xenophobia and the demand that job priority be accorded to native Italian workers.<ref>Gilda Zazzara, " 'Italians First': Workers on the Right Amidst Old and New Populisms" ''International Labor & Working-Class History'' (2018) Vol. 93, p101-112.</ref>

[[Anti-Romani sentiment]] in Italy takes the form of hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed at Romani people. There's no reliable data for the total number of Roma people living in Italy, but estimates put it between 140,000 and 170,000. Many national and local political leaders engaged in rhetoric during 2007 and 2008 that maintained that the extraordinary rise in crime at the time was mainly a result of uncontrolled immigration of people of Roma origin from recent European Union member state Romania.<ref>Thomas Hammarberg, "Memorandum following the visit to Italy on 19–20 June 2008," the [[Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights]], CommDH(2008)18, para. 26, 28 July 2008</ref> National and local leaders declared their plans to expel Roma from settlements in and around major cities and to deport illegal immigrants. The mayors of Rome and Milan signed "Security Pacts" in May 2007 that "envisaged the forced eviction of up to 10,000 Romani people".<ref>[[Amnesty International]], The State of the World's Human Rights 2008: Italy, POL 10/001/2008, June 2008, pp. 171–172</ref>

According to a May 2008 poll 68% of Italians, wanted to see all of the country's approximately 150,000 Gypsies, many of them Italian citizens, expelled.<ref name=Guardian>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/17/italy 68% of Italians want Roma expelled – poll], ''[[The Guardian]]'', Tom Kington, Rome, 17 May 2008</ref> The survey, published as mobs in Naples burned down Gypsy camps that month, revealed that the majority also wanted all Gypsy camps in Italy to be demolished.<ref name=Guardian />

==== Netherlands ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in the Netherlands}}
The first example for xenophobic riot in the Netherlands were the [[Afrikaanderwijk riots|riots in Afrikaanderwijk]], in which the houses of Turkish people were attacked and windows were smashed.<ref>[https://www.jeanneworks.net/files/pub/i_0027/JW_2016_WhatsTheUse_LR.pdf Freehouse: Radicalizing the local]</ref>

In early 2012 the Dutch right-wing [[Party for Freedom]] established an [[Anti-Slavic sentiment|anti-Slavic]] (predominantly [[Anti-Polish sentiment|anti-Polish]]) and [[Antiziganism|anti-Romani]] website, where native [[Dutch people]] could air their frustration about losing their job because of cheaper workers from [[Poland]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and other non-Germanic [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an countries. This led to commentaries involving [[hate speech]] and other racial prejudice mainly against Poles and Roma, but also aimed at other Central and Eastern European ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/news/115208|title=Dutch far right opens anti-Polish hotline|website=EUobserver|date=9 February 2012 }}</ref> According to a 2015 report by the [[OECD]] and [[European Commission|EU Commission]], 37% of young people born in the country with immigrant parents say they had experienced discrimination in their lives.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2016/06/23/racism-denmark-an-exchange/|title=Racism in the North: An Exchange|last1=Eakin|first1=Hugh|date=23 June 2016|access-date=14 December 2019|last2=Rose|first2=Flemming|language=en|issn=0028-7504|last3=Mchangama|first3=Jacob|journal=New York Review of Books}}</ref>

In the [[Netherlands]], antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported, allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys of Moroccan descent. A phrase made popular during football matches against the so-called Jewish football club [[AFC Ajax|Ajax]] has been adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at pro-Palestinian demonstrations: "Hamas, Hamas, Jews to the gas!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel, a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of anti-Semitic incidents in [[Amsterdam]], the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 [[History of the Jews in the Netherlands|Dutch Jews]], doubled compared to 2008.<ref name="nrc.nl">Berkhout, Karel. (26 January 2010) [http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam "Anti-Semitism on the rise in Amsterdam"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302092941/http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2468489.ece/Anti-Semitism_on_the_rise_in_Amsterdam |date=2 March 2010 }}. ''NRC Handelsblad''. Retrieved 1 June 2012.</ref>

==== Norway ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Norway}}
In 2010, the [[Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation]] after one year of research, revealed that [[antisemitism]] was common among Norwegian [[Muslim]]s. Teachers at schools with large shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students," and "Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the [[Holocaust]]." Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for [[terrorism]], none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews." Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also told that his child after school had been taken by a Muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest and hanged because he was a Jew".<ref name="Jødiske barn blir hetset 2010">{{cite news |publisher=NRK |title=Nett-TV: Lørdagsrevyen 13.03.10 Jødiske barn blir hetset |date=13 March 2010 |url=https://www.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100317183545/https://www.nrk.no/nett-tv/indeks/205057/ |archive-date=17 March 2010 |url-status=dead |language=no |access-date=12 June 2018}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{Main|Xenophobia in Russia}}
{{further|History of the Jews in the Soviet Union|History of the Jews in Russia}}
[[File:protestinrussia.jpg|thumb|A demonstration in Russia. The antisemitic slogans cite [[Henry Ford]] and [[Elizabeth of Russia|Empress Elizabeth]].]]
Lien Verpoest explores the era of the Napoleonic wars to identify the formation of conservative ideas ranging from traditionalism to ardent patriotism and xenophobia.<ref>Lien Verpoest, "An Enlightened path towards conservatism: critical junctures and changing elite perceptions in early nineteenth-century Russia." ''European Review of History'' 24.5 (2017): 704–731 [https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/500034 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104213110/https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/500034 |date=4 November 2021 }}.</ref> Conservatives generally controlled Russia in the 19th century, and imposed xenophobia in education and the academy.  In the late 19th century, especially after nationalistic uprisings in Poland in the 1860s, the government displayed xenophobia in its hostility toward ethnic minorities that did not speak Russian. The decision was to reduce the use of other languages, and insist on Russification.<ref>A. V. Astakhova, "Xenophobia in the Public and Pedagogical Thought of the Russian Empire of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Pre-Soviet Period)." ''Russian Social Science Review'' 62.1–3 (2021): 16–22.</ref>

By the beginning of the 20th century, most European Jews lived in the so-called [[Pale of Settlement]], the Western frontier of the [[Russian Empire]] consisting generally of the modern-day countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and neighboring regions.  Many pogroms accompanied the [[Russian Revolution|Revolution of 1917]] and the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215022/anti-Semitism |title=anti-Semitism |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>[[Hilary L. Rubinstein]], Daniel C. Cohn-Sherbok, Abraham J. Edelheit, [[William D. Rubinstein]], ''The Jews in the Modern World'', Oxford University Press, 2002.</ref>

During the [[Russian Civil War|civil war era (1917–1922)]] both the Bolsheviks and the Whites employed nationalism and xenophobia as weapons to delegitimise the opposition.<ref>Liudmila G. Novikova, "Red Patriots against White Patriots: Contesting Patriotism in the Civil War in North Russia." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 71.2 (2019): 183–202.</ref>

After World War II official national policy was to bring in students from Communist countries in East Europe and Asia for advanced training in Communist leadership roles. These students encountered severe xenophobia on campus.  They survived by sticking together, but developed a hostility toward the Soviet leadership.<ref>Benjamin Tromly, "Brother or other? East European students in Soviet higher education establishments, 1948–1956." ''European History Quarterly'' 44.1 (2014): 80–102. [https://www.academia.edu/download/44216243/80.full.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Even after the fall of Communism foreign students faced hostility on campus.<ref>Alexander Larin, "Students in Russia (Based on materials of sociological survey)." ''Far Eastern Affairs'' (2009) 37#2 pp 114–137
</ref>

In the 2000s, "[[skinheads]]" were especially visible in attacking anything foreign.<ref>Peter Worger, "A mad crowd: Skinhead youth and the rise of nationalism in post-communist Russia." ''Communist and Post-Communist Studies'' 45.3–4 (2012): 269–278.</ref>  Racism against both the Russian citizens ([[peoples of the Caucasus]], [[indigenous peoples of Siberia]] and Russian Far East, etc.) and non-Russian citizens of Africans, Central Asians, South Asians(Indians,Pakistanis,etc), East Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese, etc.) and Europeans (Ukrainians, etc.) became a significant factor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |title=Racist Violence, Rhetoric Plague Russia |access-date=17 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018174645/http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=726 |archive-date=18 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Using surveys from 1996, 2004, and 2012, Hannah S. Chapman, et al. reports a steady increase in Russians' negative attitudes toward seven outgroups. Muscovites especially became more xenophobic.<ref>Hannah S. Chapman, et al. "Xenophobia on the rise? Temporal and regional trends in xenophobic attitudes in Russia." ''Comparative Politics'' 50.3 (2018): 381–394.</ref> In 2016, [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] reported that "Researchers who track xenophobia in Russia have recorded an "impressive" decrease in hate crimes as the authorities appear to have stepped up pressure on far-right groups".<ref>{{cite news |title=Hate Crimes Said Down In Russia As Kremlin Cracks Down On Nationalist Critics |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-sova-hate-crimes-down-nationalist-crackdown/27562759.html |work=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) |date=19 February 2016}}</ref> David Barry uses surveys to investigate the particularistic and xenophobic belief that all citizens should join Russia's dominant Orthodox religion. It is widespread among ethnic Russians and is increasing.<ref>David Barry, "Ethnodoxy, national exceptionalism, and xenophobia: a case study of contemporary Russia." ''National Identities'' 21.3 (2019): 223–239.</ref>

A 2016 [[GlobeScan]]/[[BBC World Service]] poll found that 79% of Russian respondents disapproved of accepting Syrian refugees, the highest percentage out of 18 countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 April 2016 |title=Identity 2016: 'Global citizenship' rising, poll suggests |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-36139904 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20211223163742/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-36139904%23comments |archive-date=23 December 2021 |access-date=8 May 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2016 |title=Global Citizenship A Growing Sentiment Among Citizens Of Emerging Economies: Global Poll |url=https://globescan.com/2016/04/27/global-citizenship-a-growing-sentiment-among-citizens-of-emerging-economies-global-poll/ |website=[[GlobeScan]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Sweden ====
{{Further|Antisemitism in Sweden}}
A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views".<ref name="GovStudy">Henrik Bachner and Jonas Ring. {{cite web |url=http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |title=Antisemitic images and attitudes in Sweden |access-date=21 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221140257/http://intolerans.levandehistoria.se/article/article_docs/antisemitism_english.pdf |archive-date=21 February 2007 }}. levandehistoria.se</ref> The former prime minister [[Göran Persson]] described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."<ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/922248.html Anti-Semitism, in Sweden? Depends who you're asking] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418045705/http://haaretz.com/hasen/spages/922248.html |date=18 April 2009 }}, ''Haaretz'', 9 November 2007.</ref>

In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told ''Die Presse'', an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East", although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews". Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish newspaper ''Skånska Dagbladet'' reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009, about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.<ref>[http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia Report: Anti-Semitic attacks rising in Scandinavia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325205944/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2010/03/22/1011279/report-anti-semitic-attacks-in-rise-in-scandanavia |date=25 March 2010 }}, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA), 22 March 2010.</ref> In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of [[Malmö]].<ref>[http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 Simon Wiesenthal Center to Issue Travel Advisory for Sweden – Officials Confer With Swedish Justice Minister Beatrice Ask | Simon Wiesenthal Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218192040/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=4441467&ct=8971903 |date=18 December 2010 }}. Wiesenthal.com (14 December 2010). Retrieved 1 June 2012.</ref>

==== Switzerland ====
{{see also|Immigration to Switzerland#Racism|Migration_background#Switzerland|l1=Racism in Switzerland|label 2=Migration background in Switzerland}}

Swiss "Confederation Commission Against Racism" which is part of the Swiss "Federal Department of Home Affairs"[http://www.edi.admin.ch/] published a 2004 report, ''Black People in Switzerland'': ''A Life between [[Racial integration|Integration]] and [[Discrimination]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edi.admin.ch/ekr/dokumentation/shop/00019/00142/index.html?lang=de |title=Schwarze Menschen in der Schweiz. Ein Leben zwischen Integration und Diskriminierung |access-date=12 February 2008 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050311063519/http://www.edi.admin.ch/ekr/dokumentation/shop/00019/00142/index.html?lang=de |archive-date=11 March 2005 }}. edi.admin.ch (2004)</ref> (published in German, French, and Italian only). According to this report, discrimination based on skin colour in Switzerland is not exceptional, and affects immigrants decades after their immigration.

[[Swiss People's Party]] claims that Swiss communities have a [[democracy|democratic]] right to decide who can or cannot be Swiss. In addition, the report said "Official statements and political campaigns that present immigrants from the EU in a favourable light and immigrants from elsewhere in a bad light must stop", according to the Swiss Federal Statistics Office in 2006, 85.5% of the foreign residents in Switzerland are European.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/data/01.html |title=Statistique suisse – Population étrangère – Aperçu général |publisher=Bfs.admin.ch |date=3 May 2012 |access-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608021414/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/fr/index/themen/01/07/blank/data/01.html |archive-date=8 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[United Nations]] special rapporteur on racism, [[Doudou Diène]], has observed that Switzerland suffers from racism, [[discrimination]] and [[xenophobia]]. The UN envoy explained that although the Swiss authorities recognised the existence of [[racism]] and xenophobia, they did not view the problem as being serious. Diène pointed out that representatives of minority communities said they experienced serious racism and discrimination, notably for access to public services (e.g. health care), employment and lodging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/front/UN_envoy_calls_racism_in_Switzerland_a_reality.html?siteSect=105&sid=6382785&cKey=1137401626000&ty=st |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130115201031/http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/front/UN_envoy_calls_racism_in_Switzerland_a_reality.html?siteSect=105&sid=6382785&cKey=1137401626000&ty=st |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 January 2013 |title=UN envoy calls racism in Switzerland a reality- swissinfo |publisher=Swissinfo.ch |date=14 January 2006 |access-date=29 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6980766.stm | work=BBC News | first=Imogen | last=Foulkes | title=Swiss row over black sheep poster | date=6 September 2007}}</ref>

The [[2009 Swiss minaret referendum]] banned the construction of new minarets—towers traditionally attached to mosques—by a 57 to 43 popular vote of the country. In the [[2021 Swiss referendums]], the electorate banned the wearing of a full face covering, which some Orthodox Muslim women wear.

==== Ukraine ====
{{Main|Racism and discrimination in Ukraine}}
Israel's Antisemitism Report for 2017 stated that "A striking exception in the trend of decrease in antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe was Ukraine, where the number of recorded [[Antisemitism in Ukraine|antisemitic attacks]] was doubled from last year and surpassed the tally for all the incidents reported throughout the entire region combined."<ref name="RU2017">{{cite news |title=Report 2017: Ukraine had more antisemitic cases than all former USSR countries combined |url=https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Antisemitism/Report-Ukraine-had-more-antisemitic-incidents-than-all-former-Soviet-countries-combined-540096 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=29 January 2018}}</ref> Ukrainian state historian, Vladimir Vyatrovich dismissed the Israeli report as anti-Ukrainian propaganda and a researcher of antisemitism from Ukraine, Vyacheslav Likhachev said the Israeli report was flawed and amateurish.<ref name="RU2017"/>
[[File:1902_rally_in_Lonson_against_destitute_foreigners_in_UK.jpg|thumb|1902 rally in London England against Destitute Foreigners]]

====United Kingdom====
{{See also|Racism in the United Kingdom|Islamophobia in the United Kingdom}}

The extent and the targets of xenophobic attitudes in the United Kingdom have varied over time. It has resulted in cases of discrimination, riots and [[Hate crime#United Kingdom|racially motivated murder]]s. Racism and Xenophobia were mitigated by the attitudes and norms of the [[British class system]] during the 19th century, in which race and nationality mattered less than social distinction: a black African tribal chief was unquestionably superior to a white English [[costermonger]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Malik |first=Kenan |date=7 May 2001 |title=Why the Victorians were colour blind. In the 19th century, race mattered far less than social distinction: A West African tribal chief was unquestionably superior to an East End costermonger |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/node/153394 |url-status=dead |journal=New Statesman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816053533/https://www.newstatesman.com/node/153394 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |access-date=2 October 2021}}</ref> Use of the word "racism" became more widespread after 1936, although the term "race hatred" was used in the late 1920s by sociologist [[Frederick Hertz]]. Laws, including the [[Race Relations Act 1965]], were passed in the 1960s that specifically prohibited racial discrimination.<ref>J. Brown, ''[http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8360/CBP-8360.pdf An early history of British race relations legislation]'' (09/07/18). [[House of Commons Library]], Briefing Paper, Number 8360.</ref>

At the 1517 [[Evil May Day]] riots in London, protestors attacked the prominence of foreigners in London wool and cloth businesses;<ref name=":1">Derek Wilson, "Evil May Day 1517: Foreign traders were attracted to the City of London by England's prosperous trade in wool and cloth. They were not always made welcome." ''History Today'' (June 2016) 67#6 pp 66–71</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Magazine |first1=Smithsonian |last2=Boissoneault |first2=Lorraine |title=On Evil May Day, Londoners Rioted Over Foreigners Stealing Their Jobs |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/evil-may-day-1517-london-riots-over-foreigners-180963090/ |access-date=2023-04-19 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref> historians have called the event xenophobic.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waddell |first=Brodie |date=2021-08-12 |title=The Evil May Day riot of 1517 and the popular politics of anti-immigrant hostility in early modern London |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/hisres/htab024 |journal=Historical Research |volume=94 |issue=266 |pages=716–735 |doi=10.1093/hisres/htab024 |issn=0950-3471}}</ref> Xenophobia in popular literature targeted Germans in the early 20th centuries, based on fears of militarism and espionage.<ref>Donald Gillin, "China and the Foreigner, 1911 to 1950." ''South Atlantic Quarterly'' 58 (1969): 208–219.</ref>

According to scholar [[Julia Lovell]], there has been a history of [[Anti-Chinese sentiment|sinophobia]] dating back to the early 20th century, propagated by writers like [[Charles Dickens]], which has endured to the present day with current media depictions of China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=[[Julia Lovell]] |date=30 October 2014 |title=The Yellow Peril: Dr Fu Manchu & the Rise of Chinaphobia by Christopher Frayling – review |url=http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/oct/30/yellow-peril-dr-fu-manchu-rise-of-chinaphobia-christopher-frayling-review |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en}}</ref>

Racism has been observed as having a correlation between factors such as levels of unemployment and immigration in an area. Some studies suggest [[Brexit]] led to a rise in racist incidents, where locals became hostile to foreigners.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/1369183X.2018.1451308| title=Racism and xenophobia experienced by Polish migrants in the UK before and after Brexit vote| journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies| volume=45| pages=61–77| year=2019| last1=Rzepnikowska| first1=Alina| issue=1| doi-access=free}}</ref>

Studies published in 2014 and 2015 suggested that racism was on the rise in the UK, with more than one third of those polled admitting they were racially prejudiced.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-27599401|title=One third 'admit racial prejudice'|date=28 May 2014|work=BBC News}}</ref>{{needs update|date=July 2021}} However a 2019 EU survey, ''Being Black in the EU'', ranked the UK as the least racist in the 12 Western European countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2019-being-black-in-the-eu-summary_en.pdf | title=Being Black in the EU Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey|publisher=FRA}}</ref>

[[Sectarianism]] between [[Ulster Protestants]] and [[Irish Catholics]] in Northern Ireland has been called a form of racism by some international bodies.<ref>[https://www.equalityni.org/ECNI/media/ECNI/Consultation%20Responses/2020/DoJ-HateCrimeLawReview.pdf Hate Crime Legislation in Northern Ireland, Independent Review]. [[Equality Commission for Northern Ireland]], April 2020. p.53</ref> It has resulted in widespread discrimination, [[Segregation in Northern Ireland|segregation]] and serious violence, especially [[Irish War of Independence#North-east|during partition]] and [[the Troubles]].{{cn|date=December 2024}}

During the acrimonious [[Brexit]] debate, xenophobia increased in London, especially against French living in the city.<ref>Saskia Huc-Hepher, "'Sometimes there's racism towards the French here': xenophobic microaggressions in pre-2016 London as articulations of symbolic violence." ''National Identities'' 23.1 (2021): 15–39 [https://westminsterresearch.westminster.ac.uk/download/758e8d0b5939f6330f53b1a88a36b6ecc3a7e15a2e2ff8bd4767a84bc9e85651/198390/Xenophobic%20Microaggressions%20in%20Pre-2016%20London_Article_Clean_May2019.pdf online].</ref>