Editing Sumerian language (section)

==== Stem ====
The verbal stem itself can also express grammatical distinctions within the categories '''number''' and '''tense-aspect'''. In a number of verbs, this involves [[suppletion]] or [[morphonological]] alternations that are not fully predictable.

1. With respect to '''number''', plurality can be expressed by ''complete'' reduplication of the ''ḫamṭu'' stem (e.g. 𒆭𒆭 ''kur<sub>9</sub>-kur<sub>9</sub>'' "enter (pl.)" or by a [[suppletive]] stem (e.g. 𒁺 ''gub'' "stand (sing.)" - 𒁻 ''sug<sub>2</sub>'' "stand (pl.)". The traditional view is that both of these morphological means express plurality of the absolutive participant in Sumerian.<ref name=":29">Rubio (2007: 1338)</ref><ref name=":30">Thomsen (2001: 125)</ref> However, it has often been pointed out that complete reduplication of the verb in Sumerian can also express "plurality of the action itself"<ref>Rubio (2007: 1337),</ref> intensity or [[iterative|iterativity]],<ref name="etcsl2005" /> and that it is not obligatory in the presence of plural participants, but rather seems to expressly emphasize the plurality.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":30" /> According to some researchers,<ref>Jagersma (2010: 314-315)</ref><ref>Zólyomi (2017: 137-140)</ref><ref>Edzard (2003: 74-79)</ref> the predominant meaning of the suppletive plural stem is, indeed, plurality of the most affected participants, whereas the predominant meaning of complete reduplication is plurality of events (because they occur at multiple times or locations). However, even with suppletive plural stems, the singular may occur with a plural participant, presumably because the event is perceived as a single one.<ref>Jagersma (2010: 318-319)</ref>

2. With respect to '''tense-aspect marking''', verbs are divided in four types; ''ḫamṭu'' is always the unmarked TA.

* The stems of the '''1st type''', regular verbs, are analysed in two ways: some scholars believe that they do not express TA at all,<ref>Thomsen (1984, 2001), Attinger (1993), Edzard (2003), Jagersma (2010), Zólyomi (2017), Zamudio (2017). Originally the analysis of Arno Poebel.</ref> while others claim that they express ''marû'' TA by adding a suffix -/e/ as in 𒁶𒂊 ''dim<sub>2</sub>-e'' vs 𒁶 ''dim<sub>2</sub>'' "make".<ref>Hayes (2000), Rubio (2007), Michalowski (2020), Sallaberger (2020), Civil (2020). Originally proposed by M. Yoshikawa.</ref> This -/e/ would, however, nowhere be distinguishable from the first vowel of the pronominal suffixes except for intransitive ''marû'' 3rd person singular; in that last form, the first analysis attributes the -/e/ to the presence of the -/e(d)/ suffix described [[#The modal or imperfective suffix -/ed/|below]]. The glosses in this article assume the first analysis.
* The '''2nd type''' expresses ''marû'' by ''partial'' reduplication of the stem, e.g. 𒆭 ''kur<sub>9</sub>'' vs 𒆭𒆭 ''ku<sub>4</sub>-ku<sub>4</sub>'' "enter". Usually, as in this example, this ''marû'' reduplication follows the pattern C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>-C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub> (C<sub>1</sub> = 1st consonant of the root, V = 1st vowel of the root). In a few cases, the template is instead C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>1</sub>.<ref name="Jeger312">Jagersma (2010: 312-314)</ref> 
* The '''3rd type''' expresses ''marû'' by adding a consonant, e.g. ''te'' vs ''te'''g̃'''<sub>3</sub>'' "approach" (both written 𒋼). A number of scholars do not recognise the existence of such a class or consider it dubious.{{efn|Jagersma (2010: 311) treats this as a suppletive stem. As another instance of the same pattern, Zólyomi (2017) cites 𒌓𒁺 ''e<sub>3</sub>'' vs ''ed<sub>2</sub>''.<ref>Zólyomi (2017: 129)</ref> Foxvog (2010: 120) points out that this class has at most these two members and considers its status to be suspect.}}
* The '''4th type''' uses a suppletive stem, e.g. 𒅗 ''dug<sub>4</sub>'' vs 𒂊 ''e'' "do, say". Thus, as many as four different suppletive stems can exist, as in the admittedly extreme case of the verb "to go": 𒁺 ''g̃en'' ("to go", ''ḫamṭu'' sing.), 𒁺 ''du'' (''marû'' sing.), (𒂊)𒁻 (''e-'')''re<sub>7</sub>'' (''ḫamṭu'' plur.), 𒁻 ''sub<sub>2</sub>'' (''marû'' plur.).
The following tables show some of the most frequent stem alternations.{{Efn|More unpredictable stem alternations of Sumerian verbs, specifically ''marû'' reduplicating stems, are indicated in the catalogue of verbs in Thomsen (2001: 295-323) and in [https://www.sumerian.org/sumerian.pdf Halloran (1999)].}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Verbs with suppletive plurals<ref>Jagersma (2010:314), Zólyomi (2017: 139)</ref>
!singular
!plural
!meaning
|-
|𒁺 ''gub''
|𒁻 ''sug<sub>2</sub>''
|"stand"
|-
|𒋾 ''til<sub>2</sub>'' (𒇻 ''lug'' for animals) 
|𒅊 ''se<sub>12</sub>''/''sig<sub>7</sub>''
|"live"
|-
|𒁺 ''tum<sub>2</sub>''
|𒁺𒁺 ''laḫ<sub>5</sub>''{{Efn|In addition, Sallaberger (2020: 59) believes that there was an additional stem used in Old Sumerian specifically for leading animals, namely 𒊏 ''ra''.}}
|"lead"<ref>Foxvog (2016: 120), Sallaberger (2020: 59)</ref>/"carry countable objects"?<ref name=":41">Zólyomi (2017: 139)</ref>{{efn|Traditionally, this verb was considered a four-stem verb with the alternation ''ře<sub>6</sub>'' (sing. ''ḫamṭu''), ''tum<sub>2</sub>''/''tum<sub>3</sub>'' (sing. ''marû''), ''laḫ<sub>4</sub>'' (plur. ''ḫamṭu'' and ''marû'')<ref name="Thomsen 2001: 133-136">Thomsen (2001: 133-136</ref>); newer research has promoted a split into two verbs, although there are disagreements about the semantic/functional difference between them.<ref name="Foxvog 2016: 120">Foxvog (2016: 120)</ref><ref name=":41"/>}}
|-
|𒆭 ''kur<sub>9</sub>''
|𒁔 ''sun<sub>5</sub>''
|"enter" (the use of the suppletive plural stem seems to be optional)<ref>Thomsen (2001: 132), EPSD entry for ''sun [ENTER]'', P. Attinger's ''Lexique sumérien-français'', (''2019'')''.''</ref>
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Verbs with suppletive ''marû'' forms<ref>Jagersma (2010: 311), Zólyomi (2017: 139), Sallaberger (2023: 57)</ref>
! colspan="2" |''singular''
! colspan="2" |''plural''
! rowspan="2" |meaning
|-
!''ḫamṭu'' 
!''marû''
!''ḫamṭu'' 
!''marû''
|-
|𒅗 ''dug<sub>4</sub>''
| colspan="3" |𒂊 ''e'' (''marû'' participle ''𒁲 di(-d)'')
|"do", "say"
|-
|𒁺 ''g̃en''
|𒁺 ''du'' 
|(𒂊)𒁻 (''e-'')''re<sub>7</sub>''
|𒁻 ''sub<sub>2</sub>''
|"go"
|-
|𒁺 ''ře<sub>6</sub>''{{efn|Traditionally, this verb was considered a four stem verb with the alternation ''ře<sub>6</sub>'' (sing. ''ḫamṭu''), ''tum<sub>2</sub>''/''tum<sub>3</sub>'' (sing. ''marû''), ''laḫ<sub>4</sub>'' (plur. ''ḫamṭu'' and ''marû'');<ref name="Thomsen 2001: 133-136"/> newer research has prompted a split into two verbs.<ref name="Foxvog 2016: 120"/><ref name=":41"/>}}
|𒉐 ''tum<sub>3</sub>''{{Efn|The stem 𒉐 ''tum<sub>3</sub>'' has, exceptionally, a ''ḫamṭu'' agreement pattern in spite of the verb itself being used with ''marû'' meaning".:<ref>Zólyomi (2017: 139), Jagersma (2010: 311)</ref> e.g. 𒁀𒀭𒉐 ''ba-an-tum<sub>3</sub>'' "he will take it away" (Jagersma 2010: 266-367).}}
| colspan="2" | --------------
|"carry", "bring"<ref name="Foxvog 2016: 120"/>/"carry an uncountable mass"?<ref name=":41" />{{efn|Traditionally, this verb was considered a four stem verb with the alternation ''ře<sub>6</sub>'' (sing. ''ḫamṭu''), ''tum<sub>2</sub>''/''tum<sub>3</sub>'' (sing. ''marû''), ''laḫ<sub>4</sub>'' (plur. ''ḫamṭu'' and ''marû'');<ref name="Thomsen 2001: 133-136"/> newer research has prompted a split into two verbs.<ref name="Foxvog 2016: 120"/><ref name=":41"/>}}
|-
|𒆪 ''tuš''
|𒆪 ''dur<sub>2</sub>''{{Efn|𒆪 ''suš'' in intransitive usage and ''dur'' in transitive usage "to seat, set" according to Sallaberger (2023: 57). Cf. Foxvog (2016: 82) citing Attinger.}}
| colspan="2" |𒂉 ''durun''{{Efn|Often also written 𒂉𒂉 ''durun<sub>x</sub>'', 𒂉𒊒𒌦 ''dur<sub>2</sub>-ru-un''.}}
|"sit", "live somewhere"
|-
|𒁁 ''uš<sub>4</sub>'' 
| colspan="3" |𒁁 ''ug<sub>7</sub>''/𒂦 ''ug<sub>5</sub>'' 
|"die"
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Frequent verbs with reduplicating ''marû'' forms<ref>Jagersma (2010: 312-314), Zólyomi (2017: 129), Sallaberger (2023: 55-56). The spelling of the reduplicated form is indicated in the table only where it is not simply a doubling of the main form.</ref>
!''ḫamṭu'' 
!''marû''
!meaning
|-
|''𒉋 bil<sub>2</sub>''
|''𒉋𒉋 BIL<sub>2</sub>-BIL<sub>2</sub>''{{Efn|The use of capitals indicate that the pronunciation of the reduplicated stem is unknown or uncertain.}}
|burn
|-
|''𒊑 degₓ''
|''𒊑𒊑 de<sub>5</sub>-de<sub>5</sub>''
|gather
|-
|''𒂄 dun''
|''DUN-DUN''
|string up together
|-
|''𒁔 dun<sub>5</sub>''
|''DUN<sub>5</sub>-DUN<sub>5</sub>''
|swing
|-
|𒅍𒂷/𒅍 ''gag̃'' 
|''ga<sub>6</sub>-ga<sub>6</sub>''
|carry
|-
|𒄄 ''gi<sub>4</sub>''
|''gi<sub>4</sub>''-''gi<sub>4</sub>''
|turn
|-
|''𒁽 gir<sub>5</sub>''
|''GIR<sub>5</sub>-GIR<sub>5</sub>'' 
|slip, dive
|-
|𒆥 ''gur<sub>10</sub>''
|''GUR<sub>10</sub>''-''GUR<sub>10</sub>''
|reap
|-
|𒃻 ''g̃ar''
|𒂷𒂷 ''g̃a<sub>2</sub>''-''g̃a<sub>2</sub>''
|put
|-
|𒄩𒆷 ''ḫa-la''
|''𒄬𒄩 ḫal-ḫa''
|divide
|-
|𒅆𒌨 ''ḫulu'' 
|''𒅆𒌨𒄷 ḫulu-ḫu'' /''ḫulḫu''/
|be bad, destroy
|-
|𒆥 ''kig̃<sub>2</sub>''
|''KIG̃<sub>2</sub>''-''KIG̃<sub>2</sub>''
|seek
|-
|𒆭 ''kur<sub>9</sub>''
|''ku<sub>4</sub>-ku<sub>4</sub>''
|enter
|-
|𒊬 ''mu<sub>2</sub>''
|''mu<sub>2</sub>-mu<sub>2</sub>''
|grow
|-
|𒌆 ''mur<sub>10</sub>''
|''mu<sub>4</sub>-mu<sub>4</sub>''
|dress
|-
|𒅘 ''nag̃''
|''na<sub>8</sub>-na<sub>8</sub>''
|drink
|-
|𒆸𒆸 ''nig̃in''
|''𒆸𒆸 ni<sub>10</sub>-ni<sub>10</sub>, 𒉈𒉈 ne-ne''
|go around
|-
|𒊏 ''raḫ<sub>2</sub>''
|''ra-ra''
|hit
|-
|𒉚 ''sa<sub>10</sub>''
|''sa<sub>10</sub>-sa<sub>10</sub>''
|barter
|-
|𒋛 ''si''
|''si-si''
|fill
|-
|𒋢 ''sug<sub>6</sub>''
|''su<sub>2</sub>-su<sub>2</sub>''
|repay
|-
|𒂞 ''šeš<sub>2</sub>''
|''še<sub>8</sub>-še<sub>8</sub>''
|anoint,{{Efn|Only in post-Ur III texts (Jagersma 2010: 312-314)}} cry
|-
|𒌋 ''šuš'', 𒋙 ''šuš<sub>2</sub>''
|''𒌋𒌋 šu<sub>4</sub>-šu<sub>4</sub>, 𒋙𒋙 šu<sub>2</sub>-šu<sub>2</sub>''
|cover
|-
|𒋺 ''taka<sub>4</sub>''
|''da<sub>13</sub>-da<sub>13</sub>''
|leave behind
|-
|𒋼𒂗 ''te-en''
|''te-en-te''
|cool off
|-
|''𒋗𒉀 tu<sub>5</sub>''
|''tu<sub>5</sub>-tu<sub>5</sub>''
|bathe in
|-
| ''𒌇 tuku''
|''du<sub>12</sub>-du<sub>12</sub>''
|have
|-
| ''𒋳 tuku<sub>5</sub>''
|''TUKU<sub>5</sub>-TUKU<sub>5</sub>''
|weave
|-
|𒅇 ...𒆪 ''u<sub>3</sub>'' ...''ku<sub>4</sub>''
|''u<sub>3</sub>'' ...''ku<sub>4</sub>-ku<sub>4</sub>''
|sleep
|-
| ''𒍣 zig<sub>3</sub>''
|''zi-zi''
|rise
|-
|𒍪 ''zu''
|''zu-zu''
|learn, inform
|}