Editing Reformation (section)

==Wars of religion and tolerance==

===Schmalkaldic Wars===

{{Main|Schmalkaldic War|Second Schmalkaldic War}}

[[File:Carlos V en la Batalla de Mühlberg, por Tiziano.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A fully armed bearded man riding a horse with a lance in his right hand|''Portrait of Emperor {{nowrap|Charles V}} at the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg'' (1548) by [[Tizian]]]]

Scandals and internal conflicts weakened the Protestants' position in Germany in the early 1540s.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=354}} Philip the Magnanimous committed [[bigamy]] by secretly marrying a [[Margarethe von der Saale|lady-in-waiting of his court]] although [[Christine of Saxony|his wife]] was still alive. Bucer, Luther, and Melanchthon had discretely sanctioned the bigamious marriage allegedly to prevent adultery.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=354}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=222}} In 1542, Philip and John the Constant's successor, [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony|John Frederick I]] ({{reign|1532|1547}}) invaded the [[Duchy of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel]] which brought disapproval from other princes. Disputes over lands renewed the old rivalry between the [[Treaty of Leipzig|Ernestine and Albertine]] branches of the [[House of Wettin|Wettin dynasty]] of Saxony. Taking advantage of the situation, Emperor Charles built a broad coalition of Catholic and Evangelical princes against Hesse and Electoral Saxony. The coalition included the Albertine duke [[Maurice, Elector of Saxony|Maurice of Saxony]] ({{reign|1541|1553}}). During the ensuing [[Schmalkaldic War]], Charles and his allies won a decisive victory, and Maurice was rewarded with John Frederick's title of elector.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=354–356}}

The triumphant {{nowrap|Charles V}} regulated religious issues with an imperial edict known as the ''[[Augsburg Interim]]''. The ''Interim'' sanctioned clerical marriage and the communion in both kinds in Protestant territories, but denied further concessions. Maurice issued an alternative regulation called the ''[[Leipzig Interim]]'' for Saxony which ordered the clergy to wear [[surplice]]s. Melanchthon supported the ''Leipzig Interim'', stating that such issues were "matters indifferent" but uncompromising Lutheran theologians such as [[Nicolaus von Amsdorf]] (d. 1565) and [[Matthias Flacius]] (d. 1575) rejected all concessions to imperial demands. Different views on justification and the Eucharist caused further heated debates between Melanchton's followers, known as [[Philippists]], and their opponents, called [[Gnesio-Lutherans]] ('authentic Lutherans') in the 1550s. The ''Augsburg Interim'' was only implemented in the southern German Protestant cities. This led to the expulsion of recalcitrant clerics, including Bucer from Strasbourg.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=264–265}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=356–357, 372–374}} Alarmed by Charles's triumph, Calvin and Bullinger agreed on a consensual Eucharistic formula, now known as {{lang|la|[[Consensus Tigurinus]]}} ('Consensus of Zürich'), emphasising that Christ "makes us participants of himself" in the Lord's Supper, but also stating that God "uses the ministry of the sacraments" without infusing divine power into them. Luther had died in 1546 but his followers rejected the ''Consensus''.{{refn|group=note|The Evangelical pastor [[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]] (d. 1574) described Calvin as "the cow" and Bullinger as "the bull" in a pamphlet against the ''Consensus'' in 1552.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=244}}}} The rift between Evangelical and Reformed Protestants widened to the extent that Reformed refugees faced an unfriendly reception at Evangelical countries.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=244–245}} In Bohemia, Hussite and Evangelical aristocrats and townspeople rose up against {{nowrap|King Ferdinand I}}. Although Ferdinand crushed the revolt, he had to sanction religious plurality in Moravia as a reward for the Moravian Estates' loyalty during the Bohemian revolt.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=265}}

Distrusting Emperor Charles, Maurice brokered a coalition of Evangelical princes, and promised four prince-bishoprics to King [[Henry II of France]] ({{reign|1547|1559}}) for financial support. Maurice and his allies [[Second Schmalkaldic War|invaded the Habsburgs' domains]], forcing Charles to flee. Signed on 10 August 1552, the [[Peace of Passau]] prescribed that the religious issues were to be discussed at the following Imperial Diet. The Diet was opened at Augsburg on 5 February 1555. Already exhausted, Charles appointed Ferdinand to represent him. Ferdinand's negotiations with the Evangelical princes ended with the [[Peace of Augsburg]] on 25 September. The document reaffirmed the principle {{lang|la|cuius regio, eius religio}}, but the Imperial Estates could only choose between Catholicism and the ''Augsburg Confession''. Evangelical imperial free cities had to tolerate the existence of Catholic communities within their walls, and prince-bishoprics [[Reservatum ecclesiasticum|could not be secularised]] in case the bishop abandoned the Catholic faith.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=231}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=357–358}} Charles, who did not sign the peace treaty, abdicated, ceding his imperial title to Ferdinand, and his vast empire to his son [[Philip II of Spain]] ({{reign|1556|1598}}).{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=266}}

===French Wars of Religion===

{{Main|French Wars of Religion}}
{{See also|Colloquy of Poissy|Succession of Henry IV of France}}

Many French Protestants did not risk to profess their faith in public. They were known as [[Nicodemite]]s after [[Nicodemus]], a [[Pharisee]] who visited Jesus in secret. Calvin condemned this practice describing those who attended the Mass as soldiers "in the army of Antichrist". Under his influence, the French Protestants started to stay away from Catholic church services. They were called [[Huguenots]] for uncertain reason.{{sfn|Eire|2022|pp=115–119}} The poet [[Clément Marot]] (d. 1544) provided them with popular stirring songs by translating forty-nine Psalms to French.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=268}} {{nowrap|Francis I}} promised to exterminate heresy in France in a [[Treaty of Crépy|peace treaty]] with {{nowrap|Charles V}} in 1544. Next year, Waldensians [[Mérindol massacre|were massacred]] in the [[Luberon]] region. In 1547, {{nowrap|Henry II}} established a special court for heresy cases, named {{lang|fr|[[Chambre Ardente|la chambre ardente]]}} ('the burning chamber'). The lawyer [[Jean Crespin]] (d. 1572) completed a [[martyrology|catalogue of martyrs]] to commemorate the victims of the purges, and it gained immense popularity in the Protestant communities all over Europe.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=366–367}} After around 1555, prominent French aristocrats converted to Protestantism, including Marguerite of Angoulême's daughter, [[Jeanne d'Albret]], (d. 1572), Jeanne's husband [[Antoine of Navarre|Antoine de Bourbon]] (d. 1562), and [[Gaspard II de Coligny]] (d. 1572), [[admiral of France]]. Their patronage encouraged less distinguished Huguenots to express their faith in public.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=383}} In 1559, delegates from seventy-two congregations attended the first synod of the [[Reformed Church of France]], representing about 1.5–2 million believers. The synod adopted the ''[[Gallican Confession]]'', a confessional document drated by Calvin.{{Sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=268–269}}{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|p=151}}

Fully preoccupied with a [[Italian War of 1551–1559|new war]] against Emperor Charles, {{nowrap|Henry II}} did not take severe measures against the Huguenot nobility.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=270}} After his sudden death after an accident, his eldest son [[Francis II of France|Francis II]] ({{reign|1559|1560}}) ascended the throne. His wife, Mary, Queen of Scots was the niece of [[Francis, Duke of Guise]] (d. 1563) and [[Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine]] (d. 1574), two leaders of the most resolute Catholic faction of the nobility.{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|p=153}} The queen mother [[Catherine de' Medici]] (d. 1589) distrusted them but the persecution of Huguenots intensified under their influence.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=270}} When Francis died by an ear infection, Calvin considered his fate as divine deliverance. Francis was succeeded by his brother [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]] ({{reign|1560|1574}}) under Catherine's regency.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=270–273}} She [[Edict of Saint-Germain|enacted]] the Huguenots' right to freely attend church services and hold public assemblies because she wanted to avoid a civil war along religious lines.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=384}}

[[File:Gregory XIII medal.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|alt=Two sides of a medal, one depicting a bearded man in monk's habit, the other an armed angel killing people|[[Pope Gregory XIII]]'s medal commemorating the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] in Paris with the inscription "VGONOTTORVM STRAGES 1572" ('Massacre of Huguenots, 1572')]]

Uncompromising Catholics and Huguenots considered their confrontation inevitable.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=294}} The first of the [[French Wars of Religion]]—a series of armed conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots—began after Guise's retainers [[Massacre of Vassy|massacred]] more than fifty Huguenots at [[Wassy|Vassy]] on 1 March 1562.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=384}}{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|p=154}} As Antoine de Bourbon had returned to Catholicism, his brother [[Louis I, Prince of Condé]] (d. 1569) assumed the leadership of a Huguenot revolt.{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|p=154}}{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=137}} They concluded a [[Treaty of Hampton Court (1562)|treaty with]] England in September 1562.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=274}} To achieve a reconciliation, Catherine de'Medici married off her daughter [[Margaret of Valois]] (d. 1615) to the Protestant son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine de Bourbon, [[Henry IV of France|Henry de Bourbon]], King of Navarre ({{reign|1572|1610}}). Mutual mistrust between Catholics and Huguenots, and the Parisians' determination to cleanse their city of heresy led to the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] after the wedding. On 24 August 1572, a fanatic mob slaughtered 2,000–3,000 Protestants in Paris, and by early October further 6,000–7,000 Huguenots fell victim to pogroms in other cities and towns.{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|pp=158–159}} Many Huguenots returned to the Catholic Church or fled from France, and those who remained gathered in southern and southern-west France and continued the armed resistance.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=385}} Known as "[[Malcontents (France)|Malcontents]]", moderate Catholics concluded that only concessions to the Huguenots could restore peace.{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|p=158}}

{{nowrap|Charles IX}} died in May 1574 leaving an almost empty treasury to his brother [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] ({{reign|1574|1567}}).{{sfn|Diefendorf|2006|pp=158–159}} Henry adopted a moderate religious policy but the uncompromising Catholics established the [[Catholic League (French)|Catholic League]] in 1576. They entered into a [[Treaty of Joinville|secret alliance]] with {{nowrap|Philip II}} of Spain to prevent the spread of Protestantism. In 1589, the monk [[Jacques Clément]] mortally wounded King Henry. He named Henry de Bourbon as his heir, but the League and many cities refused to obey to a Huguenot king. {{nowrap|Henry IV}} secured the support of moderate Catholics by converting to Catholicism. He defeated his French opponents and their Spanish allies, and put an end to the civil war early in 1598. He enacted many of the demands of the Huguenots, about fifteen per cent of the population, in the [[Edict of Nantes]]. Among others, they were allowed to attend religious services in many places, and their right to hold public offices was confirmed.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=279–280}}

===Revolt in the Netherlands===
{{Main|Eighty Years' War}}
[[File:Beeldenstorm (Iconoclastic Fury) in Antwerpen 1566 Frans Hogenberg.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3 |alt=People dragging down sculptures and breaking windows in a large church|Engraving of the sack of the [[Cathedral of Our Lady (Antwerp)|Church of Our Lady in Antwerp]] (1566) by [[Frans Hogenberg]]]]

More Protestants fell victim to persecution in the seventeen provinces of [[Habsburg Netherlands]] than in any other country between 1523 and 1555.{{refn|group=note|Around 1,900 individuals were executed for heresy; about two-thirds of them were Anabaptists.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=387}}}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=283}} The ruthless persecution prevented the establishment of Evangelical congregations although Luther's ideas were widely discussed in [[Flemish people|Flemish]] communities.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=285–286}} Reformed theology spread among the [[Walloons]] through individuals' correspondence with Calvin and the Genevan academy from the 1540s. Nicodemism was not unusual but uncompromising Protestants disturbed Catholic ceremonies.{{refn|group=note|In [[Tournai]], a Protestant man seized the sacramental bread during the mass, condemning "papist idolatry". An other man called a Catholic cleric a false prophet in [[Ghent]].{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=288}}}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=287–288}} The preacher [[Guido de Bres]] (d. 1567) established the first permanent Reformed congregations.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=387}} He was a main contributor to the ''[[Belgic Confession]]'', a confessional document based on the ''Gallican Confession'', first published in [[Walloon language|Walloon]] in 1561, and in Dutch in 1562. The ''Confession'' sharply criticised the Anapabtists, and emphasized the importance of church discipline.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=387}}{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=288–289}}

In 1566, {{nowrap|[[Compromise of Nobles|300 nobles]]}} requested {{nowrap|Philip II's}} [[List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands|governor]] [[Margaret of Parma]] (d. 1586) to moderate anti-heretic legislation. Although the petitioners were mocked as "[[Geuzen|beggars]]",{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=289}} Margaret was open to a compromise. Protestant refugees returned from abroad, and religious enthusiasts stirred up public demonstrations.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=302}} On the night of 20–21 August 1566, a Protestant mob sacked the [[Cathedral of Our Lady (Antwerp)|Antwerp Cathedral]], introducing a [[Beeldenstorm|popular iconoclastic movement]] that spread all over the Netherlands.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=388}}{{sfn|Eire|2022|p=129}} In 1567, Philip appointed [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba]] (d. 1582) to crush the riots. Alba arrived at the head of a 20,000-strong army, and introduced a reign of terror, leading to the execution of thousands of people.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=289}} A prominent aristocrat [[William the Silent]], [[Prince of Orange]] (d. 1584) assumed the leadership of the resistance. His "Sea Beggars"—a squadron of privateers—seized the provinces of [[County of Holland|Holland]] and [[County of Zeeland|Zeeland]] by 1572,{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=388–389}} although the Reformed communities were in the minority in most towns.{{refn|group=note|For instance, Protestants made up less than 3 per cent of the population in the town of [[Alkmaar]] in 1576.{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=139}}}}{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=139}}

{{nowrap|Philip II's}} government faced bankruptcy and his unpaid Spanish troops [[Sack of Antwerp|sacked Antwerp]] in 1576. This led to a [[Eighty Years' War, 1576–1579|general revolt]] against Spanish rule. The Catholic aristocrat [[Philippe III de Croÿ]], [[Duke of Aarschot]] (d. 1595), made an alliance with William the Silent but rivalry between Catholics and Protestants did not abate. In 1581, the northern provinces united under William's leadership, and [[Act of Abjuration|renounced allegiance]] to Philip. In the south, Margaret of Parma's son [[Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma|Alessandro Farnese]] crushed the revolts,{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=389}} forcing about 100,000 Protestants to seek refugee in the north.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=290}} Developed from the union of seven northern provinces, the [[Dutch Republic]] remained under the loose leadership of the [[House of Orange-Nassau|House of Orange]].{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=389}} The Reformed pastors were eager to transform the whole society along their ideas. They failed because William preferred a more tolerant approach, and significant Protestant groups associated church discipline with Catholicism. As a consequence, Evangelical, Annabaptist and Catholic communities survived in the Dutch Republic.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=291}} Heterodox theologies could also spread, such as the views of [[Jacobus Arminius]] (d. 1609) who argued that an individual could resist divine grace. Although [[Arminianism]] was rejected at the international [[Synod of Dort]] in 1619, it continued to influence Protestant theologians.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=390}}

===Edict of Torda===

After King Louis's death at Mohács, two claimants [[John Zápolya]] ({{reign|1526|1540}}) and Ferdinand I of Habsburg ({{reign|1526|1564}}) competed for the Hungarian throne.{{sfn|Daniel|1998|pp=49–51}} They were Catholic but neither of them risked to alienate potential supporters by anti-Protestant purges.{{sfn|Tóth|2006|pp=210–211}} The [[Transylvanian Saxons|Transylvanian Saxon]] leader [[Markus Pemfflinger]] (d. 1537) promoted Evangelical preaching in the Saxon metropolis Hermanstadt ([[Sibiu]], Romania) from around 1530. Evangelical teaching spread among ethnic Hungarians, Slovaks, and Croats after Protestant aristocrats started to appoint Evangelical preachers to the churches under their [[jus patronatus|patronage]] in the 1530s. After Zápolya's death, the Ottomans [[Siege of Buda (1541)|conquered]] central Hungary, his widow [[Isabella Jagiellon]] (d. 1559) assumed the regency for their infant son [[John Sigismund Zápolya]] ({{reign|1540|1571}}) in [[Eastern Hungarian Kingdom|eastern Hungary]] under Ottoman suzerainty, and Ferdinand ruled [[Royal Hungary]] in the north and west.{{sfn|Daniel|1998|pp=51–52, 62, 65}} Often in need of funds, Ferdinand seized church revenues, while Isabella and her treasurer the Catholic bishop [[George Martinuzzi]] (d. 1551) secularised the estates of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Transylvania|Transylvanian bishopric]].{{sfn|Tóth|2006|p=213}} The Transylvanian Saxons adopted the ''Augsburg Confession'' in 1544; five years later, [[Pentapolitana|five free royal boroughs]] accepted an Evangelical confession in Royal Hungary.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=282}}

Two former Catholic priests [[Matthias Dévay|Mátyás Dévai Bíró]] (d. 1547) and [[Mihály Sztárai]] (d. 1575) were among the first Hungarian pastors to teach Zwinglian Eucharistic theology. "[[Sacramentarianism]]" (the denial of Christ's presence in the Eucharist) and rebaptism were outlawed by the [[Diet of Hungary|Diet]] in Royal Hungary in 1548.{{sfn|Daniel|1998|p=65}} John Sigismund was open to religious innovations. Under the influence of his court chaplain [[Ferenc Dávid]] (d. 1579), he adhered to Reformed theology from 1562, and accepted antitrinitarian views during the last years of his life.{{refn|group=note|An exceptionally flexible theologian, Ferenc Dávid was bishop of the Evangelical, Reformed and Unitarian Churches during his life. John Sigismund was also heavily influenced by his antitrinitarian court physician [[Giorgio Biandrata]] (d. 1588).{{sfn|Tóth|2006|p=215}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=254}}}} The [[Edict of Torda]] legalised three Protestant denominations—Evangelical, Reformed and [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania|Unitarian]]—in eastern Hungary in 1568.{{sfn|Tóth|2006|pp=215–216}} Eastern Hungary transformed into the autonomous [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] under Ottoman suzerainty [[Treaty of Speyer (1570)|in 1570]]. The coexistence of four officially recognised churches—Catholicism and the three legalised Protestant denominations—remained a lasting feature of religious politics in Transylvania.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=254–255, 443}} The most radical antitrinitarians rejected the New Testament and held Saturday (or [[Wheel of the Year|Sabbat]]h) as weekly holiday; hence they were called [[Szekler Sabbatarians|Sabbatarians]].{{sfn|Tóth|2006|p=216|}}

===Warsaw Confederation===

As the Bohemian Brethren were famed for their diligence, many [[Szlachta|Polish aristocrats]] eagerly settled them on their estates.{{sfn|Palmitessa|2006|p=194}} Ethnic Poles became receptive to Protestant ideas, especially to Calvin's theology from the 1540s. The {{lang|pl|[[Hetmans of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Hetman]]}} [[Jan Tarnowski]] (d. 1561) entered into correspondence with Calvin in 1540; in 1542, [[Jan Łaski]] (d. 1560) converted although [[Jan Łaski (1456–1531)|his uncle (and namesake)]] had been the [[Primate of Poland]]. In 1548, Sigismund the Old's tolerant son [[Sigismund II Augustus]] ({{reign|1548|1572}}) ascended the throne. Two years later, the first synod of the [[Polish Reformed Church]] assembled at [[Pińczów]].{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=281}} Proposals for the introduction of vernacular liturgy and communion in both kinds, and the abolition of clerical celibacy were forwarded by Sigismund Augustus to the Holy See but [[Pope Paul IV]] ({{reign|1555|1559}}) rejected them.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=256–257}} The Catholic prelates tried to put Protestant nobles and married priests on trial for heresy but the legislative assembly, or [[Sejm]] suspended such persecutions on the initiative of the Protestant [[Marshal of the Sejm]] [[Rafał Leszczyński (1526–1592)|Rafał Leszczyński]] and Tarnowski in 1552.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=281}} In 1556, Łaski organised a synod in the hope of reuniting all non-Lutheran Protestants but failed. At the meeting, [[Piotr of Goniądz]] (d. 1573) openly attacked infant baptism and the doctrine of Trinity.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=257}} The antitrinitarian [[Polish Brethren]] established their own church, known as Minor Church in contrast with the Reformed Major Church.{{sfn|Palmitessa|2006|p=195}} From 1565, Polish nobles could no more be persecuted on religious grounds which allowed them to freely choose between competing theologies.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=281}} By this time, around one-fifth of the nobility had converted to the Reformed faith, and most secular members of the [[Senate of Poland|Senate]] were Protestant. Relationship between Poland and Lithuania was redefined by the 1569 [[Union of Lublin]] which created the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=330–331}} After Sigismund Augustus died, the Sejm passed the [[Warsaw Confederation]] prescribing that only candidates who promised to protect religious freedom could be elected king.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=281}}

===Counter-Reformation and regional conflicts===

The continuous expansion of Protestantism stopped in Germany after the Peace of Augsburg. The [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavarian]] duke [[Albert V, Duke of Bavaria|Albert V]] ({{reign|1550|1579}}) took the lead of recatholicisation. He overcame the opposition of Evangelical nobles, and exiled all clerics who refused to take the Tridentine oath.{{sfn|Whaley|2013|p=392, 394}} With Albert's support, the Jesuits opened a college in [[Ingolstadt]] that accepted Evangelical and Hussite students.{{sfn|O'Malley|2006|p=231}} {{nowrap|Emperor Ferdinand I's}} eldest son and successor, [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]] ({{reign|1564|1576}}) pursued a tolerant religious policy but his brothers, [[Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria|Ferdinand II of the Tyrol]] ({{reign|1564|1595}}) and [[Charles II, Archduke of Austria|Charles II of Inner Austria]] ({{reign|1564|1590}}) were determined to subdue their Protestant subjects. After the predominantly Evangelical Estates of Inner Austria who controlled taxation extracted concessions from {{nowrap|Charles II}}, he promoted Catholicism by appointing Catholics to state offices even if he needed to hire Bavarian and Tyrolian nobles.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=436}}

Interreligious conflicts led to wars in many regions of Central Europe. The [[Cologne War]] broke out after [[Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg]], Archbishop-elector of Cologne ({{reign|1577|1583}}), abandoned Catholicism and married his Protestant lover [[Agnes von Mansfeld-Eisleben]] (d. 1637) in 1582. The war ended with the victory of his Catholic opponent [[Ernest of Bavaria|Ernest]] ({{reign|1583|1612}}), a younger son of {{nowrap|Albert V}}.{{sfn|Whaley|2013|pp=402–403}} The [[Strasbourg Bishops' War]] began when both the Catholic and Protestant canons of the [[Strasbourg Cathedral]] elected their own candidate to the [[Prince-Bishopric of Strasbourg|see of Strasbourg]] in 1592. At the end, the Protestant candidate [[Johann Georg von Brandenburg]] (d. 1624) renounced in favor of his opponent [[Charles of Lorraine (bishop of Metz and Strasbourg)|Charles of Lorraine]] ({{reign|1592|1607}}).{{sfn|Whaley|2013|pp=412–413}}

{{nowrap|Charles II's}} son and successor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] ({{reign|1590|1637}}) set up "reformation commissions"—a group of clerics and state officials led by a senior clergyman—to visit the Inner Austrian parishes between 1598 and 1601. The commissioners seized and destroyed Evangelical churches, burned Protestant books and expelled Evangelical priests, often with the support of the local (mainly [[Slovenians|Slovenian]]) peasantry.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=437}}{{sfn|Whaley|2013|p=430}} His cousin [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Rudolf II]] ({{reign|1576|1612}}) introduced anti-Protestant measures in Royal Hungary and Transylvania, [[Bocskai uprising|provoking a rebellion]]. The Ottomans supported the rebels whose leader, the Reformed aristocrat [[Stephen Bocskai]] was proclaimed prince of Transylvania ({{reign|1605|1606}}). Rudolph appointed his brother [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]] to conduct negotiations with Bocskai, and the [[Treaty of Vienna (1606)|peace treaty]] sanctioned the freedom of the Evangelical and Reformed Churches in Royal Hungary in 1606.{{sfn|Whaley|2013|pp=434–435}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=444}} Rudolph was forced to cede Hungary, Austria and Moravia to Matthias in 1608, and to [[Letter of Majesty|confirm religious freedom]] in Bohemia in 1609.{{sfn|Whaley|2013|p=436}}