Editing Privacy (section)

===A collective value and a human right===
There have been attempts to establish privacy as one of the fundamental [[human rights]], whose social value is an essential component in the functioning of democratic societies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson|first=Deborah|title=Ethical theory and business.|year=2009|publisher=Pearson/Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=978-0-13-612602-7|pages=428–442|edition=8th|author-link=Privacy|editor1=Beauchamp |editor2=Bowie |editor3=Arnold}}</ref>

Priscilla Regan believes that individual concepts of privacy have failed philosophically and in policy. She supports a social value of privacy with three dimensions: shared perceptions, public values, and [[Collectivism and individualism|collective]] components. Shared ideas about privacy allows freedom of conscience and diversity in thought. Public values guarantee democratic participation, including freedoms of speech and association, and limits government power. Collective elements describe privacy as collective good that cannot be divided. Regan's goal is to strengthen privacy claims in policy making: "if we did recognize the collective or public-good value of privacy, as well as the common and public value of privacy, those advocating privacy protections would have a stronger basis upon which to argue for its protection".<ref>Regan, P. M. (1995). ''Legislating privacy: Technology, social values, and public policy''. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.{{ISBN?}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}</ref>

Leslie Regan Shade argues that the human right to privacy is necessary for meaningful democratic participation, and ensures human dignity and autonomy. Privacy depends on norms for how information is distributed, and if this is appropriate. Violations of privacy depend on context. The human right to privacy has precedent in the [[United Nations Declaration of Human Rights]]: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html | title=United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights | year=1948 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208080853/http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html | archive-date=2014-12-08}}</ref> Shade believes that privacy must be approached from a people-centered perspective, and not through the marketplace.<ref>Shade, L.R. (2008). "Reconsidering the right to privacy in Canada". ''Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society'', 28(1), 80–91.</ref>

Dr. Eliza Watt, Westminster Law School, University of Westminster in London, UK, proposes application of the International Human Right Law (IHRL) concept of “virtual control” as an approach to deal with extraterritorial mass surveillance by state intelligence agencies. Dr. Watt envisions the “virtual control” test, understood as a remote control over the individual's right to privacy of communications, where privacy is recognized under the ICCPR, Article 17. This, she contends, may help to close the normative gap that is being exploited by nation states.<ref>Watt, Eliza. [http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/30324/1/THE%20ROLE%20OF%20INTERNATIONAL%20LAW%20AND%20CYBER%20SURVEILLANCE-CYCON%20TALLIN%202017.pdf "The role of international human rights law in the protection of online privacy in the age of surveillance."] In 2017 9th International Conference on Cyber Conflict (CyCon), pp. 1–14. IEEE, 2017.</ref>