Editing Learning (section)

== In plants ==
In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a behavior necessary for survival. [[Monica Gagliano]], an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, ''Pisum sativum''. The garden pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors.<ref name=":3" /> Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ueda|first=Minoru|date=2007|title=Endogenous factors involved in the regulation of movement and "memory" in plants|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d623/5e4ebd0ff824a4a8599aab9ea55201cf250c.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606163121/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d623/5e4ebd0ff824a4a8599aab9ea55201cf250c.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-06-06|journal=Pure Appl. Chem.|volume=79|issue=4|pages=519–527|via=Semantic Scholar|doi=10.1351/pac200779040519|s2cid=35797968}}</ref>

Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.<ref name=":3" /> In a series of training sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated by auxin signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liscum|first=Emmanuel|date=January 2014|title=Phototropism: Growing towards an Understanding of Plant Movement|journal=Plant Cell|volume=1|issue=1|pages=38–55|pmc=3963583|pmid=24481074|doi=10.1105/tpc.113.119727|bibcode=2014PlanC..26...38L }}</ref>

During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct' response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day.<ref name=":3" /> For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative learning.<ref name=":3" />

While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al. describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Telewski|first=FW|date=October 2006|title=A unified hypothesis of mechanoreception in plants.|journal=American Journal of Botany|volume=93|issue=10|pages=1466–76|pmid=21642094|doi=10.3732/ajb.93.10.1466|doi-access=free}}</ref> One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.<ref name=":4" /> Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in ''Pisum sativum'' is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.<ref name=":3" />

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the ''mimosa pudica'' plant whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus.<ref name="gagliano2014" /> There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abramson|first1=Charles I.|last2=Chicas-Mosier|first2=Ana M.|date=2016-03-31|title=Learning in Plants: Lessons from Mimosa pudica|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=7|pages=417|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00417|pmid=27065905|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4814444|doi-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece ''The Intelligent Plant'' that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/23/the-intelligent-plant|title=The Intelligent Plant|last=Pollan|first=Michael|magazine=The New Yorker|date=2013-12-16|access-date=2019-06-06|language=en|issn=0028-792X}}</ref> A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of "cognition" and "learning".