Editing History of Ukraine (section)

==== Post-war Ukrainian SSR, limited reforms and continuation of repressions ====
{{Main|Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#postwar|De-Stalinization|History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)|Glasnost|Perestroika|label 1=Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Post-war years: 1945–1953}}

After World War II, amendments to the [[Constitutions of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR]] were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of [[international law]] in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]]. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]], which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was [[List of members of the United Nations Security Council|an elected member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.<ref name=":Summits">{{Cite book|last=Reynolds|first=David|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646810103|title=Summits: six meetings that shaped the twentieth century|date=2009|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-7867-4458-9|location=New York|oclc=646810103}}</ref><ref>Stalin: The Man and His Era. by Adam B. Ulam, pp. 606–607</ref>

[[File:Крытый-вагон-на-РЖД.jpg|thumb|The deportees were transported in such wagons]]
However, this period was also marked by severe repression and social upheaval. The [[Soviet famine of 1946–1947|famine of 1946-1947]] devastated large parts of Ukraine, as the Soviet government requisitioned the entirety of the grain harvest, exacerbating food shortages. Western Ukraine, however, was less affected by the famine, largely due to the resistance efforts of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UIA). In response, the Soviet regime launched Operation "West" in 1947, [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forcibly deporting]] over 77,000 individuals—men, women, and children—from Western Ukraine to [[Siberia]]. These deportees later played a critical role in organizing uprisings within the Soviet [[Gulag]] system, including the notable [[Norilsk Uprising]], which hastened the decline of the forced labor camp network.<ref>[http://24tv.ua/chomu_radyanska_vlada_zrobila_masovu_deportatsiyu_ukrayintsiv_u_sibir_n879491 Чому радянська влада зробила масову депортацію українців у Сибір]</ref><ref>История сталинского Гулага. Конец 1920-х — первая половина 1950-х годов: Собрание документов в 7 томах. — Т. 6: Восстания, бунты и забастовки заключённых Архивная копия от 1 апреля 2024 на Wayback Machine / Ответственный редактор и составитель В. А. Козлов; Составитель О. В. Лавинская. — М.: РОССПЭН, 2004. — 736 с.</ref><ref>Макарова А. Б. Норильское восстание // «Воля»: журнал узников тоталитарных систем. — 1993. — № 1. — С. 68—108.</ref>

After Stalin's death in 1953 and the rise of [[Nikita Khrushchev]] to power, a significant number of political prisoners were released from the [[Gulag]], including many Ukrainian nationalists and intellectuals. However, those deemed a threat to Soviet authority often remained under close surveillance. While some victims of Stalinist purges were formally rehabilitated, this process was selective and incomplete, with many individuals still excluded from full reintegration into society.<ref>[http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html Joseph Stalin killer file] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803144222/http://www.moreorless.au.com/killers/stalin.html |date=3 August 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:25th anniversary of conquering virgin land. USSR block. 1979.jpg|thumb|left|USSR postage stamp of 1979, celebrating the 25th anniversary of the Virgin Lands campaign]]
Khrushchev, focusing on agricultural development, emphasized the importance of Ukraine’s fertile soil in Soviet food production. This was particularly significant in the context of the [[Virgin Lands Campaign]], which saw resources and personnel diverted to develop agricultural lands in [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakhstan]] and [[Siberia]]. While the campaign had long-term effects on the Ukrainian agricultural sector, Ukrainian collective farms remained inefficient, plagued by bureaucratic mismanagement that hampered the potential benefits of these reforms. During this period, industrial growth continued, with particular emphasis on heavy industries like steel production and mining. However, outdated infrastructure and poor planning often undermined progress, and economic inefficiency persisted throughout the country.<ref>{{cite book | last = Taubman | first = William | authorlink = William Taubman | title = Khrushchev: The Man and His Era | publisher = W.W. Norton & Company | year = 2003 | location = New York | pages = [https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 260–262] | isbn = 978-0393051445 | url = https://archive.org/details/khrushchevmanhis00taub/page/260 }}</ref>

The [[Khrushchev Thaw]], a period of relative cultural liberalization, also allowed for a limited expression of Ukrainian identity, especially through literature, the arts, and historical studies. Prominent Ukrainian writers such as [[Oles Honchar]] and [[Lina Kostenko]] emerged, reflecting themes of national identity and social change. Their work offered subtle resistance to Soviet ideologies, though they had to navigate a highly censored environment. [[Industrialization]] also sparked rapid [[urbanization]], with many Ukrainians moving to cities for factory and mining jobs. This period saw a rise in literacy rates and access to education, contributing to the development of a more technically skilled population. However, the curricula remained ideologically driven, prioritizing loyalty to the [[Communist Party]] over independent thought or national identity.<ref>Tompson, William J. ''Khrushchev: A Political Life''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995</ref>

[[File:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|Location of the Ukrainian SSR (yellow) within the [[Soviet Union]] in 1954–1991]]
In 1954, the [[Crimean Peninsula]] [[1954 transfer of Crimea|was transferred]] from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR) to the Ukrainian SSR. The transfer was largely administrative, as both the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR were part of the [[Soviet Union]], and it was part of Khrushchev's broader strategy, rather than a gesture of genuine autonomy for Ukraine.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18287223 Crimea profile – Overview], BBC News</ref> Meanwhile, [[Ukrainian nationalists]], including remnants of the [[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists]] (OUN) and the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (UPA), continued to face persecution. While the UPA’s armed resistance had been largely crushed by the early 1950s, nationalist sentiments remained a clandestine force, particularly among intellectuals and rural populations. Those who strayed too far from [[Soviet ideology]] faced [[censorship]], [[harassment]], and sometimes [[imprisonment]]. Despite the brief cultural revival and improvements in living standards, the era was marked by continued economic inefficiency and political repression. The limited freedoms allowed under Khrushchev's rule fostered a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals who began to explore national identity in ways that would later fuel the dissident movement. However, despite these small steps toward cultural and intellectual freedom, Ukraine remained firmly under Soviet control, with little political autonomy or room for genuine national development.<ref>[[Sergei Khrushchev|Khrushchev, Sergei N.]], ''Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower'', Penn State Press, 2000.</ref><ref>Schecter, Jerrold L, ed. and trans., ''Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes'', Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1990</ref>

The transfer of power from Nikita Khrushchev to [[Leonid Brezhnev]] in 1964 was a result of a coup orchestrated by the Communist Party leadership. Khrushchev's policies, such as [[de-Stalinization]] and economic reforms, had created dissatisfaction among party elites due to their perceived instability and inefficiency. In October 1964, during a [[Politburo]] meeting, Khrushchev was accused of policy failures and forced to resign. Leonid Brezhnev, who had gained the trust of party conservatives, replaced Khrushchev as [[General Secretary]]. Brezhnev’s leadership marked a return to collective decision-making, stability, and more conservative policies, emphasizing continuity and avoiding the bold reforms associated with Khrushchev.<ref name=":KBL">George W. Breslauer, ''Khrushchev and Brezhnev As Leaders'' (1982).</ref>

{{Multiple image
| header            = Some Ukrainian dissidents
| align             = left
| total_width       = 230
| image1            = Ivan Dziuba (2004).jpg
| caption1          = [[Ivan Dziuba]]
| image2            = EthnoCarpathians 22082017DolynaUA-26 Crop and fix.jpg
| caption2          = [[Vasyl Stus]]
}}
Under Brezhnev, often associated with the "stagnation" period, Ukraine faced significant challenges. Centralized control from [[Moscow]] left [[Ukrainian Communist Party]] leaders, such as [[Volodymyr Shcherbytsky]], as mere executors of [[Kremlin]] policies. [[Russification]] policies intensified, sidelining the Ukrainian language and culture in favor of Soviet Russian dominance. Ukrainian literature, art, and history were heavily censored, with works reflecting national identity banned or rewritten. Political repression was severe. The [[KGB]] targeted [[dissident]]s, intellectuals, and cultural figures advocating for Ukrainian autonomy or identity. Figures like [[Vasyl Stus]], [[Ivan Dziuba]], and [[Viacheslav Chornovil]] faced harassment, imprisonment, or exile. Despite repression, underground movements persisted, using samizdat to circulate banned works and raise awareness of Soviet human rights violations.<ref name=":KBL"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://liva.com.ua/vladimir-shherbiczkij-i-ego-vremya.html|title=ВЛАДИМИР ЩЕРБИЦКИЙ И ЕГО ВРЕМЯ|newspaper=liva.com.ua|date=13 February 2020 |access-date=5 August 2022}}</ref>

Economically, Ukraine remained an industrial powerhouse, producing [[steel]], [[coal]], and [[machinery]], and serving as the Soviet Union's "breadbasket". However, inefficient planning, outdated infrastructure, and environmental degradation plagued the economy. Poor agricultural yields and bureaucratic mismanagement led to food shortages. Urbanization grew, but housing shortages and inadequate services highlighted the stagnation. Environmental issues worsened, particularly in industrial regions like [[Donbas]], where pollution severely impacted public health. Rural areas were neglected, fueling urban migration. Despite Ukraine’s contributions to the [[Soviet space program]] and industrial output, minimal modernization occurred.<ref name=":KBL"/>

[[File:UAHELG.jpg|thumb|Ukrainian Helsinki Group]]
The suppression of Ukrainian identity and the struggles of dissidents sowed seeds of resistance. Activists like Vasyl Stus and the [[Ukrainian Helsinki Group]] exposed Soviet human rights abuses, though they faced harsh punishments. From the 1960s through the 1980s, Ukraine became a focal point for [[Soviet dissidents|dissident activity]] within the USSR. A disproportionately high number of Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and cultural figures were imprisoned, exiled, or subjected to [[Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union|punitive psychiatry]] for opposing the regime. These movements not only highlighted systemic oppression in the Soviet Union, but also laid the foundation for a national awakening that ultimately fueled Ukraine's quest for independence.<ref>Дисиденти. Антологія текстів / Упоряд.: О. Сінченко, Д. Стус, Л. Фінберг; Наук. ред. О. Сінченко. Національний університет «Києво-Могилянська академія», Центр досліджень історії та культури східноєвропейського єврейства, Центр європейських гуманітарних досліджень; Український католицький університет, Інститут релігії та суспільства. ‒ K.: Дух і Літера, 2018. ‒ 656 с. ‒ (БІБЛІОТЕКА СПРОТИВУ, БІБЛІОТЕКА НАДІЇ)</ref>

After the death of Leonid Brezhnev in 1982, the [[Soviet Union]] experienced a period of short-lived leadership under [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982–1984) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984–1985), before [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] assumed power in 1985. Gorbachev's introduction of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) marked a turning point, fostering an atmosphere of reform and amplifying public dissatisfaction with Soviet governance. Glasnost opened the door for greater freedom of expression, allowing Ukrainian intellectuals, activists, and dissidents to publicly address long-suppressed issues such as [[Russification]], environmental degradation, and historical atrocities like the [[Holodomor]]. During this time, organizations like the Ukrainian Helsinki Group, and movements like [[People's Movement of Ukraine|Rukh]] (the People’s Movement of Ukraine, established in 1989) emerged as key advocates for greater autonomy, cultural revival, and ultimately, independence. As a major industrial and agricultural hub within the USSR, Ukraine bore the brunt of the broader Soviet economic stagnation. Inefficient central planning, a lack of innovation, and overexploitation of resources resulted in widespread economic inefficiencies and severe environmental damage.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=30 August 2022 |title=How 'Glasnost' and 'Perestroika' Changed the World |url=https://time.com/5512665/mikhail-gorbachev-glasnost-perestroika/ |access-date=2 February 2024 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=Perestroika: Glasnost, Definition & Soviet Union |url=https://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/perestroika-and-glasnost |access-date=2 February 2024 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG|thumb|left|[[Pripyat]] with the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] in the distance]]
On 26 April 1986, the Ukrainian town of [[Pripyat]] became the site of one of the worst nuclear disasters in history when Reactor 4 of the [[Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant]] exploded. This released a significant amount of radioactive material into the atmosphere, which was carried across [[Europe]] by wind currents. The resulting radioactive fallout contaminated vast areas of northern [[Ukraine]] and neighboring [[Belarus]]. The immediate aftermath of the explosion was devastating. Two plant workers died on the night of the accident, and in the weeks that followed, 28 emergency workers succumbed to acute radiation sickness. The disaster forced the evacuation of over 100,000 people from Pripyat and surrounding areas, leaving behind ghost towns and a contaminated [[Chernobyl exclusion zone]] that remains uninhabitable to this day. This tragedy had profound environmental, health, and political consequences. The [[Chernobyl disaster]] galvanized local independence movements, such as Rukh, which gained significant momentum in the late 1980s and contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Accident of 1986 |url=https://chnpp.gov.ua/en/about/history-of-the-chnpp/accident-of-1986 |access-date=14 July 2022 |website=Chornobyl NPP}}</ref>

The late 1980s witnessed a cultural awakening in Ukraine, characterized by a renewed interest in the [[Ukrainian language]], traditions, and history. Efforts to revive Ukrainian cultural identity challenged decades of Soviet policies aimed at suppressing it. The reestablishment of the [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church]] and movements advocating for an independent Ukrainian Orthodox Church underscored growing dissatisfaction with Soviet [[atheism]] and fueled nationalist sentiment. These developments signaled a rising tide of Ukrainian self-awareness and a determination to reclaim national identity and sovereignty.<ref>Victoria Smolkin, ''A Sacred Space is Never Empty: A History of Soviet Atheism'' (Princeton UP, 2018) [https://hdiplo.org/to/RT21-56 online reviews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424221605/https://issforum.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable-XXI-56.pdf |date=24 April 2022 }}</ref><ref>Bociurkiw В. R. Religious Situation in the Soviet Ukraine. A paper presented at a Symposium marking the 30th anniversary of the Ukrainian Quarterly in Doc. 1974.Koszeliwec I. Kronika ukrainskiego oporu. Kultura. № 1 — 2 (328 — 329).</ref>