Editing Duke (section)

=== China ===
During the era of ''[[fengjian]]'' in [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]] ([[Western Zhou]], [[Spring and Autumn period]] and the [[Warring States period]]), the [[Zhou dynasty nobility|title]] of ''[[Gong (title)|gōng]]'' ([[wikt:公|公]]; sometimes translated as "Duke", sometimes as "Lord") was sparingly granted.  Under the principle of "Three Deferences and Two Royal Descendants" (三恪二王後), the three former royal houses were granted the title of ''gōng''; however, not all scholars recognize such a tradition in the Western Zhou dynasty.  For that dynasty, this would be the descendants of the [[Xia dynasty]] and [[Shang dynasty]]; their dukedoms were respectively [[Qi (Henan)|Qi]] (杞) and [[Song (state)|Song]] (宋).  According to tradition, these states were considered the king's guests rather than subjects.  However, recent scholarship has identified multiple other meanings for ''gōng'', including the patriarch of a lineage,  a non-inheritable title signifying a very broad and senior position within the court, or a respectful appellation for any regional ruler or deceased ancestor.<ref>{{ cite journal
| last = Pines | first=Yuri
| title= Names and Titles in Eastern Zhou Texts
| journal= T'oung Pao| year = 2020
| volume= 106 | issue=5–6
| page = 716
| publisher= Brill | doi=10.1163/15685322-10656P06
| s2cid=234449375
| place = Leiden
}}</ref>

In works like ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''<ref name="Li-2008">{{ cite book
| author= Li Feng | year = 2008
| title= Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization
| editor1 = Dieter Kuhn
| editor2 = Helga Stahl
| chapter= Transmitting Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the “Five Ranks”
| pages = 103–134
| publisher= Würzburger Sinologische Schriften
| place = Würzberg
| ref = {{sfnref|Li|2008}}
}}</ref>{{rp|106}} and others that date to the [[Warring States period]], ''gōng'' was interpreted as the highest in the "five ranks of nobles" ([[:zh:五等爵|五等爵]]) attributed to the Western Zhou dynasty.<ref>{{ cite journal
| last = Falkenhausen| first =Lothar von
| title=The Concept of Wen in the Ancient Chinese Ancestral Cult
| journal=Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews
| volume= 18 | year = 1996 | page = 7
| doi = 10.2307/495623
| jstor = 495623
}}</ref> However, the title was not in use until the end of the Western Han,<ref name="Li-2008" />{{rp|126}} granted to the descendants of the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and Zhou royal houses and the eventual usurper [[Wang Mang]].  It was also granted to [[Cao Cao]].<ref>{{cite book
| title= [[Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms]]
| script-title= zh:三國志注
| author= Chen Shou | author-link= Chen Shou
| editor=Pei Songzhi | editor-link=Pei Songzhi
| year = 1977 | orig-year=429
| publisher= Dingwen Printing
| place=Taipei
| ref={{sfnref|Chen and Pei|429}}
| chapter=[[:s:zh:三國志/卷01|1: 武帝紀]]
| page = 37
}}</ref> The title during the Han was inferior to that of prince (諸侯王), which was only available to imperial princes.  The "five ranks of nobles" were implemented as such during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] (晉朝).<ref name="Li-2008" />{{rp|127}}  During the [[Southern dynasties]], usurpers typically sought the title of duke, then prince, before compelling the monarch to abdicate.

The [[Duke of Yansheng]] noble title was granted to the descendants of [[Confucius]]. In 1935, the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist]] Government changed the title to Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which still exists as a hereditary office of the [[Republic of China]].

The title ''gōng'' and others were also awarded, sometimes [[posthumous names|posthumously]], during the imperial period of [[Chinese history]] to recognize distinguished civil and military officials. These could include a taxable base for the official, or could be purely honorary. For example, [[Emperor Lizong of Song]] granted the posthumous title Duke of Hui (徽國公) to the [[Neo-Confucian]] thinker [[Zhu Xi]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chu Hsi New Studies|last=Chan|first=Wing-tsit|publisher=University of Hawai`i Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-8248-1201-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chuhsinewstudies0000chan/page/34 34]|url=https://archive.org/details/chuhsinewstudies0000chan/page/34}}</ref>