Editing Desalination (section)

=== Ion concentration polarisation (ICP) ===
In 2022, using a technique that used multiple stages of ion [[Concentration polarization|concentration polarisation]] followed by a single stage of [[electrodialysis]], researchers from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] manage to create a filterless portable desalination unit, capable of removing both dissolved salts and [[suspended solids]].<ref name="YoonKwonKangBrackHan2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Yoon |first1=Junghyo |last2=Kwon |first2=Hyukjin J. |last3=Kang |first3=SungKu |last4=Brack |first4=Eric |last5=Han |first5=Jongyoon |date=2022-05-17 |title=Portable Seawater Desalination System for Generating Drinkable Water in Remote Locations |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c08466 |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=10 |pages=6733–6743 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.1c08466 |pmid=35420021 |bibcode=2022EnST...56.6733Y |s2cid=248155686 |issn=0013-936X}}</ref> Designed for use by non-experts in remote areas or [[natural disaster]]s, as well as on military operations, the prototype is the size of a suitcase, measuring 42 × 33.5 × 19&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup> and weighing 9.25&nbsp;kg.<ref name="YoonKwonKangBrackHan2022" /> The process is fully automated, notifying the user when the water is safe to drink, and can be controlled by a single button or smartphone app. As it does not require a high pressure pump the process is highly energy efficient, consuming only 20 watt-hours per liter of drinking water produced, making it capable of being powered by common portable [[solar panel]]s. Using a filterless design at low pressures or replaceable filters significantly reduces maintenance requirements, while the device itself is self cleaning.<ref name="MIT2022">{{Cite web |title=From seawater to drinking water, with the push of a button |url=https://news.mit.edu/2022/portable-desalination-drinking-water-0428 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=MIT News {{!}} Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=28 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref> However, the device is limited to producing 0.33 liters of drinking water per minute.<ref name="YoonKwonKangBrackHan2022" /> There are also concerns that fouling will impact the long-term reliability, especially in water with high [[turbidity]]. The researchers are working to increase the efficiency and production rate with the intent to commercialise the product in the future, however a significant limitation is the reliance on expensive materials in the current design.<ref name="MIT2022" />