Editing Cognitive dissonance (section)

== Neuroscience findings ==
Technological advances are allowing psychologists to study the biomechanics of cognitive dissonance.

=== Visualization ===
The study ''Neural Activity Predicts Attitude Change in Cognitive Dissonance''<ref name=vanVeenKrug2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = van Veen V, Krug MK, Schooler JW, Carter CS | title = Neural activity predicts attitude change in cognitive dissonance | journal = Nature Neuroscience | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 1469–1474 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19759538 | doi = 10.1038/nn.2413 | s2cid = 1753122 }}</ref> (Van Veen, Krug, etc., 2009) identified the neural bases of cognitive dissonance with [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI); the neural scans of the participants replicated the basic findings of the induced-compliance paradigm. When in the fMRI scanner, some of the study participants argued that the uncomfortable, mechanical environment of the MRI machine nevertheless was a pleasant experience for them; some participants, from an experimental group, said they enjoyed the mechanical environment of the fMRI scanner more than did the control-group participants (paid actors) who argued about the uncomfortable experimental environment.<ref name=vanVeenKrug2009/>

The results of the neural scan experiment support the original theory of Cognitive Dissonance proposed by Festinger in 1957; and also support the psychological conflict theory, whereby the anterior cingulate functions, in counter-attitudinal response, to activate the dorsal [[anterior cingulate cortex]] and the anterior [[insular cortex]]; the degree of activation of said regions of the brain is predicted by the degree of change in the psychological attitude of the person.<ref name=vanVeenKrug2009/>
[[File:MRI anterior cingulate.png|thumb|right|400px|The biomechanics of cognitive dissonance: MRI evidence indicates that the greater the psychological conflict signalled by the [[anterior cingulate cortex]], the greater the magnitude of the cognitive dissonance experienced by the person.]]

As an application of the free-choice paradigm, the study ''How Choice Reveals and Shapes Expected Hedonic Outcome'' (2009) indicates that after making a choice, neural activity in the [[striatum]] changes to reflect the person's new evaluation of the choice-object; neural activity increased if the object was chosen, neural activity decreased if the object was rejected.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharot T, De Martino B, Dolan RJ | title = How choice reveals and shapes expected hedonic outcome | journal = The Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 29 | issue = 12 | pages = 3760–3765 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19321772 | pmc = 2675705 | doi = 10.1523/jneurosci.4972-08.2009 | url = http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~tsharot/Sharot_JofN_2009.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110617053852/http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/~tsharot/Sharot_JofN_2009.pdf | archive-date = 2011-06-17 }}</ref> Moreover, studies such as ''The Neural Basis of Rationalization: Cognitive Dissonance Reduction During Decision-making'' (2010)<ref name=JarchoEtAl_NeuralBasisRationalization>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jarcho JM, Berkman ET, Lieberman MD | title = The neural basis of rationalization: cognitive dissonance reduction during decision-making | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 460–467 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 20621961 | pmc = 3150852 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsq054 }}</ref> and ''How Choice Modifies Preference: Neural Correlates of Choice Justification'' (2011) confirm the neural bases of the psychology of cognitive dissonance.<ref name="Izuma et al."/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Qin J, Kimel S, Kitayama S, Wang X, Yang X, Han S | title = How choice modifies preference: neural correlates of choice justification | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 240–246 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21130888 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.11.076 | s2cid = 9700855 }}</ref>

''The Neural Basis of Rationalization: Cognitive Dissonance Reduction During Decision-making''<ref name=JarchoEtAl_NeuralBasisRationalization/> (Jarcho, Berkman, Lieberman, 2010) applied the free-choice paradigm to fMRI examination of the brain's decision-making process whilst the study participant actively tried to reduce cognitive dissonance. The results indicated that the active reduction of psychological dissonance increased neural activity in the right-[[inferior frontal gyrus]], in the medial fronto-parietal region, and in the [[ventral striatum]], and that neural activity decreased in the [[anterior insula]].<ref name=JarchoEtAl_NeuralBasisRationalization /> That the neural activities of [[rationalization (psychology)|rationalization]] occur in seconds, without conscious deliberation on the part of the person; and that the brain engages in emotional responses whilst effecting decisions.<ref name=JarchoEtAl_NeuralBasisRationalization />

=== Emotional correlations ===
The results reported in ''Contributions from Research on Anger and Cognitive Dissonance to Understanding the Motivational Functions of Asymmetrical Frontal Brain Activity''<ref name=Harmon-Jones2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harmon-Jones E | title = Contributions from research on anger and cognitive dissonance to understanding the motivational functions of asymmetrical frontal brain activity | journal = Biological Psychology | volume = 67 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 51–76 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15130525 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.003 | s2cid = 8137723 }}</ref> (Harmon-Jones, 2004) indicate that the occurrence of cognitive dissonance is associated with neural activity in the [[Frontal cortex|left frontal cortex]], a brain structure also associated with the [[emotion]] of [[anger]]; moreover, functionally, anger motivates neural activity in the left frontal cortex.<ref name="Harmon-Jones, E. 1999. pp. 71"/><ref name="Harmon-Jones 2002"/> Applying a directional model of [[Motivation|Approach motivation]], the study ''Anger and the Behavioural Approach System'' (2003) indicated that the relationship between cognitive dissonance and anger is supported by neural activity in the left frontal cortex that occurs when a person takes control of the social situation causing the cognitive dissonance. Conversely, if the person cannot control or cannot change the psychologically stressful stimulation, they are without a motivation to change the circumstance, then there arise other, [[Negative affectivity|negative emotions]] to manage the cognitive dissonance, such as socially inappropriate behavior.<ref name="Harmon-Jones, E. 1999. pp. 71"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harmon-Jones E | year = 2003 | title = Anger and the Behavioural Approach System | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 35 | issue = 5| pages = 995–1005 | doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(02)00313-6}}</ref><ref name=Harmon-Jones2004/>

The [[anterior cingulate cortex]] activity increases when errors occur and are being monitored as well as having behavioral conflicts with the [[self-concept]] as a form of higher-level thinking.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | vauthors = Amodio DM, Harmon-Jones E, Devine PG, Curtin JJ, Hartley SL, Covert AE | title = Neural signals for the detection of unintentional race bias | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 88–93 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14738514 | doi = 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502003.x | s2cid = 18302240 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.7527 }}</ref> A study was done to test the prediction that the left frontal cortex would have increased activity. University students had to write a paper depending on if they were assigned to a high-choice or low-choice condition. The low-choice condition required students to write about supporting a 10% increase in tuition at their university. The point of this condition was to see how significant the counter-choice may affect a person's ability to [[Coping|cope]].{{clarify|date=June 2023}} The high-choice condition asked students to write in favor of tuition increase as if it were their completely voluntary choice. The researchers use [[EEG]] to analyze students before they wrote the essay, as dissonance is at its highest during this time (Beauvois and Joule, 1996). High-choice condition participants showed a higher level of the left frontal cortex than the low-choice participants. Results show that the initial experience of dissonance can be apparent in the anterior cingulate cortex, then the left frontal cortex is activated, which also activates the approach motivational system to reduce anger.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Beauvois, J. L., Joule, R. V., 1996. A radical dissonance theory. London: Taylor and Francis.{{page needed|date=November 2021}}</ref>

=== The psychology of mental stress ===
The results reported in ''The Origins of Cognitive Dissonance: Evidence from Children and Monkeys'' (Egan, Santos, Bloom, 2007) indicated that there might be [[Evolution|evolutionary force]] behind the reduction of cognitive dissonance in the actions of pre-school-age children and [[Capuchin monkey]]s when offered a choice between two like options, decals and candies. The groups then were offered a new choice, between the choice-object not chosen and a novel choice-object that was as attractive as the first object. The resulting choices of the human and simian subjects concorded with the theory of cognitive dissonance when the children and the monkeys each chose the novel choice-object instead of the choice-object not chosen in the first selection, despite every object having the same value.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Egan LC, Santos LR, Bloom P | title = The origins of cognitive dissonance: evidence from children and monkeys | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 11 | pages = 978–983 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 17958712 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02012.x | s2cid = 535289 }}</ref>

The hypothesis of ''An Action-based Model of Cognitive-dissonance Processes''<ref name=Harmon-JonesLevy2015>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Harmon-Jones E, Harmon-Jones C, Levy N |s2cid=37492284|date=June 2015|title=An Action-Based Model of Cognitive-Dissonance Processes|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|volume=24|issue=3|pages=184–189|doi=10.1177/0963721414566449}}</ref> (Harmon-Jones, Levy, 2015) proposed that psychological dissonance occurs consequent to the stimulation of thoughts that interfere with a goal-driven behavior. Researchers mapped the neural activity of the participant when performing tasks that provoked [[psychological stress]] when engaged in contradictory behaviors. A participant read aloud the printed name of a color. To test for the occurrence of cognitive dissonance, the name of the color was printed in a color different from the word read aloud by the participant. As a result, the participants experienced increased neural activity in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] when the experimental exercises provoked psychological dissonance.<ref name=Harmon-JonesLevy2015/>

The study ''Cognitive Neuroscience of Social Emotions and Implications for Psychopathology: Examining Embarrassment, Guilt, Envy, and Schadenfreude''<ref name=JankowskiTakahashi2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jankowski KF, Takahashi H | title = Cognitive neuroscience of social emotions and implications for psychopathology: examining embarrassment, guilt, envy, and schadenfreude | journal = Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences | volume = 68 | issue = 5 | pages = 319–336 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24649887 | doi = 10.1111/pcn.12182 | s2cid = 30509785 | doi-access = free }}</ref> (Jankowski, Takahashi, 2014) identified neural correlations to specific social emotions (e.g. envy and embarrassment) as a measure of cognitive dissonance. The neural activity for the emotion of [[Envy]] (the feeling of displeasure at the good fortune of another person) was found to draw neural activity from the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex. That such increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex occurred either when a person's [[self-concept]] was threatened or when the person experienced embarrassment (social pain) caused by salient, upward social-comparison, by social-class [[snobbery]]. That social emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, envy, and ''Schadenfreude'' (joy at the misfortune of another person) are correlated to reduced activity in the [[insular lobe]], and with increased activity in the [[Striatum|striate nucleus]]; those neural activities are associated with a reduced sense of [[empathy]] (social responsibility) and an increased propensity towards antisocial behavior (delinquency).<ref name=JankowskiTakahashi2014/>

=== Body image and health intervention ===
Some school programs discuss body image and eating disorders of children and adolescents. Disordered eating behaviors include binge eating episodes, excessive fasting, vomiting, and diet pills. National data from 2017 and 2018 highlights that since starting college, approximately 50 percent of college students reported becoming increasingly concerned with their weight and body shape.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Festinger |first=Leon |date=1962 |title=Cognitive Dissonance |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24936719 |journal=Scientific American |volume=207 |issue=4 |pages=93–106 |bibcode=1962SciAm.207d..93F |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1062-93 |issn=0036-8733 |jstor=24936719 |pmid=13892642 |s2cid=56193073}}</ref> Studies examining eating disorders (ED) symptoms in college students reported that only 20 percent of those with positive ED got help. Less than 10 percent were diagnosed with an ED. This Body Project (BP) is rooted in the theory of cognitive dissonance.<ref name=":2" /> Cognitive dissonance occurs when a discrepancy emerges between beliefs and actions. The idea is centered around the notion that if beliefs and actions are inconsistent, then the individual will create a change to align the beliefs and actions. The BP uses cognitive dissonance to target ED, for example, social pressure from peers or not being satisfied with your appearance, to bring awareness and for a healthy and positive change, thoughts toward body image.<ref name=":2" />

===Modeling in neural networks===

[[Artificial neural network]] models of cognition provide methods for integrating the results of empirical research about cognitive dissonance and attitudes into a single model that explains the formation of psychological attitudes and the mechanisms to change such attitudes.<ref name="read1997">{{cite journal | vauthors = Read SJ, Vanman EJ, Miller LC | title = Connectionism, parallel constraint satisfaction processes, and gestalt principles: (re) introducing cognitive dynamics to social psychology | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 26–53 | year = 1997 | pmid = 15647127 | doi = 10.1207/s15327957pspr0101_3 | s2cid = 23161930 }}</ref> Among the artificial neural-network models that predict how cognitive dissonance might influence a person's attitudes and behavior, are:

* [[Parallel constraint satisfaction processes]]<ref name="read1997"/>
* The [[Metacognition|meta-cognitive model]] (MCM) of attitudes<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Petty RE, Briñol P, DeMarree KG | s2cid = 1395301 | year = 2007 | title = The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement, change, and strength | doi = 10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.657 | journal = Social Cognition | volume = 25 | issue = 5| pages = 657–686 }}</ref>
* Adaptive connectionist model of cognitive dissonance<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Van Overwalle F, Jordens K | year = 2002 | title = An adaptive connectionist model of cognitive dissonance | doi = 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0603_6 | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 204–231 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.15.2085 | s2cid = 16436137 }}</ref>
* Attitudes as constraint satisfaction model<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Monroe BM, Read SJ | title = A general connectionist model of attitude structure and change: the ACS (Attitudes as Constraint Satisfaction) model | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 115 | issue = 3 | pages = 733–759 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18729597 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.733 }}</ref>