Editing Developmental psychology (section)

===Childhood===
{{See also|Early childhood}}
[[Erik Erikson]] divides childhood into four stages, each with its distinct social crisis:<ref name="Bernardo J. Carducci 2009">{{cite book | vauthors = Carducci BJ | title = The Psychology of Personality: Viewpoints, Research, and Applications | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | date = 2009 | page = 189 }}</ref>
:* Stage 1: [[Infancy]] (0 to 1½) in which the psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Mistrust
:* Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
:* Stage 3: Play age (3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called the "pre-school age", "exploratory age" and "toy age".)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122300/http://www.vardhamaniqtoys.com/vision.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Vardhaman I.Q. Toys, "Vision"|archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref>
:* Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is Industry vs. Inferiority

====Infancy====
As stated, the psychosocial crisis for Erikson is Trust versus Mistrust. Needs are the foundation for gaining or losing trust in the infant. If the needs are met, trust in the guardian and the world forms. If the needs are not met, or the infant is neglected, mistrust forms alongside feelings of anxiety and fear.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson">{{cite book |doi=10.31274/isudp.2022.122 |title=Individual and Family Development, Health, and Well-being |date=2022 |last1=Lang |first1=Diana }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref> 

====Early Childhood====
Autonomy versus shame follows trust in infancy. The child begins to explore their world in this stage and discovers preferences in what they like. If autonomy is allowed, the child grows in independence and their abilities. If freedom of exploration is hindered, it leads to feelings of shame and low self-esteem.<ref name="Psychosocial Theory: Erikson"/>

====Play (or preschool) ages 3–5====
In the earliest years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their care givers and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3–5), they "enlarge their social horizons" to include people outside the family.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thornton |first1=Arland |title=The Well-being of Children and Families: Research and Data Needs |date=2001 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-09758-6 |pages=73–74 }}</ref>

[[Cognitive development#Preoperational stage|Preoperational]] and then [[Cognitive development#Concrete operational stage|operational]] thinking develops, which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lightfoot C, Cole M, Cole SR | title = The Development of Children | publisher = Macmillan | date = 2008 | pages = 275–277 }}</ref>

The motor skills of preschoolers increase so they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. No longer completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group expands. More people have a role in shaping their individual personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Preschoolers (3-5 years of age) | date = 11 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/preschoolers.html }}</ref> For [[Jean Piaget]], the child is "''a little scientist'' exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way".{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|pp=7,9}}

Play is a major activity for ages 3–5. For Piaget, through play "a child reaches higher levels of cognitive development."{{sfn|Halpenny|Pettersen|2013|p=14}}

In their expanded world, children in the 3–5 age group attempt to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops guilt.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = O'Connor B, Wells C, Applegate T | title = Health: You and Your World | volume =  1: Brief Edition | publisher = CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | date = 2015 | pages = 28 }}</ref> Children who develop "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3–5 age group.

====Middle and Late childhood ages 6–12====
For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during middle childhood is Industry vs. Inferiority which, if successfully met, instills a sense of Competency in the child.<ref name="Bernardo J. Carducci 2009" />

In all cultures, middle childhood is a time for developing "skills that will be needed in their society."<ref name="Barbara Engler 2013">{{cite book | vauthors = Engler B | title = Personality Theories | edition = 9th | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2013 | page = 142 }}</ref> School offers an arena in which children can gain a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)". They are "graded for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work.<ref name="Marc H. Bornstein 2010">{{cite book | vauthors = Bornstein MH, Vandell DL, Rook KS | title = Lifespan Development: Infancy Through Adulthood | publisher = Cengage Learning | date = 2010 | page = 299 }}</ref> Children who achieve "success in school or games might develop a feeling of competence."

The "peril during this period is that feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop.<ref name="Barbara Engler 2013" /> Parents and teachers can "undermine" a child's development by failing to recognize accomplishments or being overly critical of a child's efforts.<ref name="Marc H. Bornstein 2010" />
Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop a belief in their competence. Lack of encouragement or ability to excel lead to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://behavioralchild.com/milestones/ | vauthors = Broutian M | publisher = Milestones | title = Your child: early school years (7 to 11 years) stage of development | work = Your Child's Development | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151115170628/http://behavioralchild.com/milestones/ | archive-date= 15 November 2015 | access-date = 13 October 2015 }}</ref>

The [[Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) divides Middle Childhood into two stages, 6–8 years and 9–11 years, and gives "developmental milestones for each stage".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (6-8 years of age) | date = 4 February 2021 | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle.html }}</ref><ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11">{{cite web | work = Centers for Disease Control | title = Child Development: Middle Childhood (9-11 years of age) | url = https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle2.html | access-date = 15 October 2015 }}</ref>

====Middle Childhood (6–8)====
Entering elementary school, children in this age group begin to thinks about the future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting their friendship and acceptance become more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family". As students, they develop the mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others".<ref name = "CDC_CD_6-8" />

====Late Childhood (9–12)====
For children ages 9–11 "friendships and peer relationships" increase in strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families and they are challenged academically. To meet this challenge, they increase their attention span and learn to see other points of view.<ref name = "CDC_CD_9-11" />