Editing Arabs (section)

=== Science ===
{{main|Science in the medieval Islamic world}}
{{see also|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}
[[File:Houghton_Typ_620.47.452_-_Selenographia,_title.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Hevelius]]'s ''[[Selenographia]]'', showing [[Alhazen]] {{sic}} representing reason, and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] representing the senses.]]
Arabic science underwent considerable development during the [[Middle Ages]] (8th to 13th centuries CE), a [[Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe|source of knowledge that later spread throughout Medieval Europe]] and greatly influenced both medical practice and education. The language of recorded science was [[Arabic]]. Scientific treatises were composed by thinkers originating from across the [[Muslim world]]. These accomplishments occurred after [[Muhammad]] united the Arab tribes and the spread of Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Falagas|first1=Matthew E.|last2=Zarkadoulia|first2=Effie A.|last3=Samonis|first3=George|date=1 August 2006|title=Arab science in the golden age (750–1258 CE) and today|journal=The FASEB Journal|volume=20|issue=10|pages=1581–1586|doi=10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm|doi-access=free|issn=0892-6638|pmid=16873881|s2cid=40960150}}</ref>

Within a century after Muhammed's death (632 CE), an empire ruled by Arabs was established. It encompassed a large part of the planet, stretching from southern Europe to [[North Africa]] to [[Central Asia]] and on to India. In 711 CE, Arab Muslims invaded southern Spain; [[al-Andalus]] was a center of Arabic scientific accomplishment. Soon after, Sicily too joined the greater Islamic world. Another center emerged in [[Baghdad]] from the Abbasids, who ruled part of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] during a historic period later characterized as the "[[Islamic Golden Age|Golden Age]]" (~750 to 1258 CE).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Rediscovering Arabic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220185540/http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/rediscovering-arabic-science|archive-date=20 December 2016|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com}}</ref>

This era can be identified as the years between 692 and 945,<ref name="World Civilization Vol 1 1974, pg. 2342">[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 234.</ref> and ended when the caliphate was marginalized by local Muslim rulers in Baghdad&nbsp;– its traditional seat of power. From 945 onward until the [[Sack of Baghdad|sacking of Baghdad]] by the [[Mongol invasions|Mongols]] in 1258, the Caliph continued on as a figurehead, with power devolving more to local subordinates.<ref name="World Civilization Vol 1 1974, pg. 2332">[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 233.</ref> The pious scholars of Islam, men and women collectively known as the [[ulama]], were the most influential element of society in the fields of [[Sharia]] law, speculative thought and theology.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam; Conscience and History in a World Civilisation Vol 1''. [[The University of Chicago]], 1974, p. 238.</ref> Arabic scientific achievement is not as yet fully understood, but is very large.<ref name="RobinsonCambridge2">{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Francis|pages=228–229}}</ref> These achievements encompass a wide range of subject areas, especially [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematics]], [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|astronomy]], and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|medicine]].<ref name="RobinsonCambridge2" /> Other subjects of scientific inquiry included [[Physics in medieval Islam|physics]], [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|alchemy and chemistry]], [[Cosmology in medieval Islam|cosmology]], [[Medieval Islamic ophthalmology|ophthalmology]], [[Geography and cartography in medieval Islam|geography and cartography]], [[Sociology in medieval Islam|sociology]], and [[Psychology in medieval Islam|psychology]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Origins of Islamic Science|url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/origins-islamic-science|access-date=18 December 2016|website=Muslimheritage.com|date=30 August 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Maqamat hariri.jpg|thumb|Illustration of scholars dating from the Abbasid period by [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti]] from the ''[[Maqamat of Al-Hariri (manuscript)|Maqamat of Al-Hariri]]'' manuscript.]]
[[Al-Battani]] was an astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. His work is considered instrumental in the development of science and astronomy. One of Al-Battani's best-known achievements in astronomy was the determination of the solar year as being 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds which is only 2 minutes and 22 seconds off.<ref name="MacTutor2">{{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Battani|title=Abu Abdallah Mohammad ibn Jabir Al-Battani}}</ref> In [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], al-Battānī produced a number of [[Trigonometry|trigonometrical]] relationships.<ref name="MacTutor2" /> [[Al-Zahrawi]], regarded by many as the greatest surgeon of the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Weinberg|first=Steven|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rZvBQAAQBAJ&q=alhazen+greatest&pg=PT116|title=To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science|date=2015|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0241196656}}</ref> His surgical treatise "[[Al-Tasrif|De chirurgia]]" is the first illustrated surgical guide ever written. It remained the primary source for surgical procedures and instruments in Europe for the next 500 years.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=texts+for+next+500+years+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313324338}}</ref> The book helped lay the foundation to establish [[surgery]] as a scientific discipline independent from [[medicine]], earning al-Zahrawi his name as one of the founders of this field.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Krebs|first=Robert E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTXdplfiz-cC&q=%22father+of+surgery%22+al-zahrawi&pg=PA95|title=Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0313324338}}</ref>

Other notable Arabic contributions include among other things: the pioneering of [[organic chemistry]] by [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]],<ref>{{cite journal <!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last1=Stapleton |first1=Henry E. |author1-link=Henry Ernest Stapleton |last2=Azo |first2=R.F. |last3=Hidayat Husain |first3=M. |year=1927 |title=Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D. |url=http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270 |journal=Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=VIII |issue=6 |pages=317–418 |oclc=706947607}} pp. 338–340; {{Cite book|last=Kraus|first=Paul|title=Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque|publisher=Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale|year=1942–1943|isbn=978-3487091150|location=Cairo|oclc=468740510|author-link=Paul Kraus (Arabist)}} vol. II, pp. 41–42. Note that Jabir ibn Hayyan, if he ever existed at all, may also have been a non-Arab client of the Arab [[Azd]] tribe: see {{harvnb|Kraus|1942–1943|loc=vol. I, p. xli, note 1}}, and further [[Jabir ibn Hayyan#Biography]].</ref> establishing the science of [[cryptology]] and [[cryptanalysis]] by [[al-Kindi]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kahn|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3S8rhOEmDIIC&q=David+Kahn+The+Codebreakers|title=The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet|date=1996|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1439103555|quote=Cryptology was born among the Arabs. They were the first to discover and write down the methods of cryptoanalysis.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Borda|first=Monica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lyte2yl1SPAC&q=cryptography+arabs&pg=PA122|title=Fundamentals in Information Theory and Coding|date=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3642203473|page=122|quote=Al Kindi, an Arab scientist from 9th century is considered the father of cryptology, his book on this subject being, at this moment, the oldest available.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Arab Code Breakers|url=https://simonsingh.net/media/articles/maths-and-science/arab-code-breakers/|website=simonsingh.net}}</ref> the development of [[analytic geometry]] by [[Ibn al-Haytham]],<ref>Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven; Wallis, Faith (2014). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 237.</ref><ref>Kalin, Ibrahim (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 321.</ref> who has been described as the "world's first true scientist",<ref>{{Cite news|last=Al-Khalili|first=Jim|date=4 January 2009|title=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7810846.stm|access-date=11 April 2014}}</ref> the discovery of the [[pulmonary circulation]] by [[Ibn al-Nafis]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Kidder|first1=David S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpzb_yA42TAC&q=Ibn+al-Nafis+circulation&pg=PA122|title=The Intellectual Devotional Biographies: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Acquaint Yourself with the World's Greatest Personalities|last2=Oppenheim|first2=Noah D.|date=2010|publisher=Rodale|isbn=978-1605290881}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn an-Nafīs|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ibn-an-Nafis|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=14 March 2024}}</ref> the discovery of the [[itch mite]] parasite by [[Ibn Zuhr]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Glick|first1=Thomas F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77y2AgAAQBAJ&q=%22Ibn+Zuhr%22&pg=PA259|title=Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia|last2=Livesey|first2=Steven|last3=Wallis|first3=Faith|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135459321}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=June 2024}} the first use of [[irrational numbers]] as an algebraic objects by [[Abū Kāmil]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Akyeampong|first1=Emmanuel Kwaku|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Abu+kamil%22+%22the+first%22&pg=PA62|title=Dictionary of African Biography. 1St- Ed.; 1970|last2=Niven|first2=Mr. Steven J|date=1970|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0195382075}}</ref> the first use of the positional [[decimal fractions]] by [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|al-Uqlidisi]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Uqlidisi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Uqlidisi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-9401714167|page=69|quote=Historian J.L. Berggren, for example, concludes that while the Hindus were the first to use a "cipherized, decimal positional system", the Arabs pioneered in extending this system to "represent parts of the unit by decimal fractions".}}</ref> the development of the [[Arabic numerals]] and an early [[History of mathematical notation|algebraic symbolism]] in the [[Maghreb]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Selin|first=Helaine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&q=%22algebraic+symbolism%22+maghreb&pg=PA831|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|date=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-9401714167}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Qalasadi biography|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-Qalasadi.html|website=www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk}}</ref> the [[Thabit number]] and [[Amicable numbers#Thābit ibn Qurra theorem|Thābit theorem]] by [[Thābit ibn Qurra]],<ref name="Rashed2">{{cite book|last=Rashed|first=Roshdi|title=The development of Arabic mathematics: between arithmetic and algebra.|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=1994|isbn=978-0792325659|volume=156|location=Dordrecht, Boston & London|pages=278, 279}}</ref> the discovery of several new [[List of trigonometric identities|trigonometric identities]] by [[Ibn Yunus]] and [[al-Battani]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Tonias|first1=Elias C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0QWDAAAQBAJ&q=Al-Battani+%22trigonometric+identities&pg=PA15|title=Geometric Procedures for Civil Engineers|last2=Tonias|first2=Constantine N.|date=2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3319242958}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Ben-Menahem|first=Ari|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&q=%22ibn+yunus%22+%22trigonometric++formula%22&pg=PA565|title=Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences|date=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3540688310}}</ref> the [[mathematical proof]] for [[Ceva's theorem]] by [[Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud|Ibn Hűd]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Holme|first=Audun|url=https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn|title=Geometry: Our Cultural Heritage|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-3642144400|page=[https://archive.org/details/geometryourcultr0000holm_2nded/page/193/mode/1up?q=ibn 194]|url-access=limited}}</ref> the invention of the [[equatorium]] by [[al-Zarqali]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=May|first=Andrew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blsqDwAAQBAJ&q=al-Zarqali+Equatorium&pg=PA115|title=The Telescopic Tourist's Guide to the Moon|date=2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3319607412}}</ref> the discovery of the [[Reaction (physics)|physical reaction]] by [[Avempace]],<ref>Franco, Abel B.. "Avempace, Projectile Motion, and Impetus Theory". ''Journal of the History of Ideas''. Vol. 64(4): 543.</ref> the identification of more than 200 new [[plants]] by [[Ibn al-Baitar]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ibn al-Baitar – Dictionary definition of Ibn al-Baitar|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ibn-al-baitar|website=encyclopedia.com}}</ref> the [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]], and the [[Tabula Rogeriana]], which was the most accurate world map in pre-modern times by [[al-Idrisi]].<ref name="bacharach2">Bacharach, 2006, p. 140.</ref>
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| footer            = Diagram of a hydro-powered perpetual flute from The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices by [[Ismail al-Jazari]], 1206. (left) The eye according to [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], c.1200 (right)
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Several universities and educational institutions of the Arab world such as the [[University of Al Quaraouiyine]], [[Al Azhar University]], and [[University of Ez-Zitouna|Al Zaytuna University]] are considered to be the oldest in the world. Founded by [[Fatima al-Fihri|Fatima al Fihri]] in 859 as a mosque, the University of Al Quaraouiyine in [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first [[Academic degree|degree]] awarding educational institution in the world according to [[UNESCO]] and [[Guinness World Records]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oldest university|url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/3000/oldest-university|access-date=18 December 2017|website=Guinnessworldrecords.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Medina of Fez|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170|access-date=7 April 2016|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref> and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university.<ref>Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0521541138}}, pp.&nbsp;35–76 (35)</ref>

There are many scientific [[Influence of Arabic on other languages|Arabic loanwords]] in Western European languages, including [[wikt:Category:English terms derived from Arabic|English]], mostly via Old French.<ref>Lebedel, p.113</ref> This includes [[List of Arabic star names|traditional star names]] such as [[Aldebaran]], scientific terms like ''[[wikt:alchemy|alchemy]]'' (whence also ''[[wikt:chemistry|chemistry]]''), ''[[wikt:algebra|algebra]]'', ''[[wikt:algorithm|algorithm]]'', ''[[wikt:alcohol|alcohol]]'', ''[[wikt:alkali|alkali]]'', ''[[wikt:cipher|cipher]]'', ''[[wikt:zenith|zenith]]'', etc.

Under [[Ottoman rule]], cultural life and science in the Arab world declined. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Arabs who have won important science prizes include [[Ahmed Zewail]] and [[Elias Corey]] ([[Nobel Prize]]), [[Michael DeBakey]] and [[Alim Louis Benabid|Alim Benabid]] ([[Lasker Award]]), [[Omar M. Yaghi]] ([[Wolf Prize]]), [[Huda Zoghbi]] ([[Shaw Prize]]), [[Zaha Hadid]] ([[Pritzker Prize]]), and [[Michael Atiyah]] (both [[Fields Medal]] and [[Abel Prize]]). [[Rachid Yazami]] was one of the co-inventors of the [[lithium-ion battery]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 January 2014|title=UT Austin's John B. Goodenough Wins Engineering's Highest Honor for Pioneering Lithium-Ion Battery|url=https://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514211211/http://news.utexas.edu/2014/01/06/goodenough-wins-highest-engineering-honor|archive-date=14 May 2016|access-date=18 December 2018|website=UT News}}</ref> and [[Tony Fadell]] was important in the development of the [[iPod]] and the [[iPhone]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Salter|first=Jessica|date=14 November 2014|title=Tony Fadell, father of the iPod, iPhone and Nest, on why he is worth $3.2bn to Google|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614091359/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/people-in-technology/10892436/Tony-Fadell-father-of-the-iPod-iPhone-and-Nest-on-why-he-is-worth-3.2bn-to-Google.html|archive-date=14 June 2014}}</ref>