Editing Meditation (section)

===Modern spirituality===
[[File:Jawlensky Meditation 1290065.jpg|thumb|upright|''Meditation''. [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], 1918]]

====Modern dissemination in the West====
Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,<ref name=reininger98>{{Cite book |title=Centering prayer in daily life and ministry |editor=Gustave Reininger |year=1997 |publisher=Continuum |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8264-1041-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |access-date=2020-05-07 |archive-date=2023-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317095158/https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.<ref name=contempout>The organization [http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international Contemplative Outreach] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103193809/http://www.contemplativeoutreach.org/site/PageServer?pagename=community_chapters_international |date=2011-11-03 }}, which teaches Christian [[Centering Prayer]], has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)</ref>

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=3}} The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:
{{blockquote|The [[World Parliament of Religions]], held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, [[Swami Vivekananda]] [...] [founded] various [[Vedanta]] ashrams [...] [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; [[Abdul Baha]] [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles of [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahai]] {{sic}}, and [[Soyen Shaku]] toured in 1907 teaching Zen.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=4}}}}

[[File:Meditating in Madison Square Park.jpg|thumb|right|Meditating in [[Madison Square Park]], [[New York City]]]]

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.{{sfn|Taylor|1999|p=7}} In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.{{sfn|Everly|Lating|2002|p=200}}<ref>''Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion'' by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559</ref>

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |title=8.0% of U.S. adults (18 million) used Meditation |website=NCCIH |date=2014-11-11 |access-date=2018-01-14 |archive-date=2018-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114191159/https://nccih.nih.gov/research/statistics/NHIS/2012/mind-body/meditation |url-status=live }}</ref> with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cramer |first1=Holger |last2=Hall |first2=Helen |last3=Leach |first3=Matthew |last4=Frawley |first4=Jane |last5=Zhang |first5=Yan |last6=Leung |first6=Brenda |last7=Adams |first7=Jon |last8=Lauche |first8=Romy |year=2016 |title=Prevalence, patterns, and predictors of meditation use among US adults: A nationally representative survey |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |page=36760 |bibcode=2016NatSR...636760C |doi=10.1038/srep36760 |pmid=27829670 |pmc=5103185}}</ref> Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kachan |first1=Diana |last2=Olano |first2=Henry |last3=Tannenbaum |first3=Stacey L. |last4=Annane |first4=Debra W. |last5=Mehta |first5=Ashwin |last6=Arheart |first6=Kristopher L. |last7=Fleming |first7=Lora E. |last8=Yang |first8=Xuan |last9=McClure |first9=Laura A. |first10=David J. |last10=Lee |date=5 January 2017 |title=Prevalence of Mindfulness Practices in the US Workforce: National Health Interview Survey |journal=Preventing Chronic Disease |volume=14 |page=E01 |doi=10.5888/pcd14.160034 |pmid=28055821 |pmc=5217767}}</ref>

Mantra meditation, with the use of a ''japa mala'' and especially with focus on the [[Hare Krishna maha-mantra]], is a central practice of the [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] faith tradition and the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular [[New Religious Movements]] include the [[Ramakrishna Mission]], [[Vedanta Society]], [[Divine Light Mission]], [[Chinmaya Mission]], [[Rajneesh|Osho]], [[Sahaja Yoga]], [[Transcendental Meditation]], [[Kalki Bhagavan|Oneness University]], [[Brahma Kumaris]], [[Vihangam Yoga]] and [[Heartfulness Meditation|Heartfulness Meditation (Sahaj Marg)]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

====New Age====
{{Esotericism}}

[[New Age]] meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, [[mysticism]], [[yoga]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the [[counterculture of the 1960s|social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s]], when many of the [[baby boomers|youth of the day]] rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070503045854/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html|archive-date=3 May 2007|title=''Time Magazine'', "Youth: The Hippies" Jul. 7, 1967}}</ref> New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.<ref>{{Cite book | first=George | last=Barnia | title=The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators | publisher=Word Publishing | location=Dallas, Texas | year=1996 | url=http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | access-date=2008-10-15 | archive-date=2011-01-04 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104203727/http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of ''samadhi'', as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.<ref>{{Cite book | first=John | last=Lash | title=The Seeker's Handbook: The Complete Guide to Spiritual Pathfinding | publisher=Harmony Books | location=New York | year=1990 | page=320 | isbn=978-0-517-57797-4}}</ref>

====Guided meditation====
{{further|Yoga nidra}}

Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.<ref>Complementary, Alternative, or Integrative Health: What's In a Name? US Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service. National Institutes of Health. NIH Publication No. D347. Retrieved 31 July 2015.</ref> The session can be either in person, via media<ref>'''Sources''':
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Morris, C., The use of self-service technologies in stress management: A pilot project. Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Saint Catherine University, St. Paul, MN, 2012.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.</ref> comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.<ref>Rose J. P. and Weis, J., Sound meditation in oncological rehabilitation: a pilot study of a receptive music therapy group using the monochord. Forschende Komplementarmedizin, Vol. 15, No. 6, 2006, pp335-343.</ref><ref>Grocke, D., and Wigram, T., Receptive methods in music therapy: Techniques and clinical applications for music therapy clinicians, educators, and students. London, England: Jessica Kingsley, 2007.</ref> The most common form is a combination of [[meditation music]] and [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], relaxation, mindfulness, and [[Writing therapy|journaling]].<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131">Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D. M., and Forys, M.A., Mind-body medicine: State of the science, implications for practice. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine, Vol. 16:, 2003, pp131–147.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Guided Meditation: Principles and Practice. London; Tigers Eye, 2005.</ref><ref>Newham, P., Music, and Meditation: The Therapeutics of Sound. London: Tigers Eye: 2014.</ref>

Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in [[popular psychology]] and [[self-help]] literature. It is less commonly used in [[Scholarly method|scholarly]] and [[Scientific method|scientific]] publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.<ref name="Astin, J.A. 2003, pp131"/><ref>Post-White J. 2002. Clinical indication for use of imagery in oncology practice. In Voice Massage, Scripts for Guided Imagery, Edwards D.M (Ed.). Oncology Nursing Society: Pittsburgh, PA.</ref><ref>Wallace KG. 1997. Analysis of recent literature concerning relaxation and imagery interventions for cancer pain. Cancer Nursing 20: 79–87.</ref><ref>Luebert K, Dahme B, Hasenbring M. 2001. The effectiveness of relaxation training in reducing treatment-related symptoms and improving emotional adjustment in acute non-surgical cancer treatment: A meta-analytical review. Psycho-Oncology, Vol. 10: pp490–502.</ref>

Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes [[meditation music]], [[Music therapy|receptive music therapy]], [[guided imagery]], [[Relaxation technique|relaxation]], meditative praxis, and self-reflective [[Writing therapy|journaling]], all of which have been shown to have [[Therapy|therapeutic]] benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}} Benefits include lower levels of [[Stress (psychological)|stress]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Unger, C. A., Busse, D., & Yim, I. S., The effect of guided relaxation on cortisol and affect: Stress reactivity as a moderator. Journal of Health Psychology, 2015, 1359105315595118.
*Weigensberg M.J., Lane C.J., Winners O., Wright T., Nguyen-Rodriguez S., Goran M.I., Spruijt-Metz, D. Acute effects of stress-reduction Interactive Guided Imagery (SM) on salivary cortisol in overweight Latino adolescents. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2003, pp297-303.
*Varvogli, L., and Darviri, C., Stress Management Techniques: evidence-based procedures that reduce stress and promote health. Health Science Journal, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 pp74-89.
*Carter, E., Pre-packaged guided imagery for stress reduction: Initial results. Counseling, Psychotherapy, and Health, Vol. 2, No. 2, 2006, pp27-39.
*Wynd C. A., Relaxation imagery used for stress reduction in the prevention of smoking relapse. Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2006, pp294-302.
*Lin, M. F., Hsu, M. C., Chang, H. J., Hsu, Y. Y., Chou, M. H., and Crawford, P., Pivotal moments and changes in the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music for patients with depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, Vol. 19, Nos. 7‐8, 2010, pp1139-1148.
*Roffe, L., Schmidt, K., and Ernst, E., A systematic review of guided imagery as an adjuvant cancer therapy. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 14, No. 8, 2005, pp607-617.
*Holden-Lund C., Effects of relaxation with guided imagery on surgical stress and wound healing. Research in Nursing and Health, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp235-244.
*Stein, T. R., Olivo, E. L., Grand, S. H., Namerow, P. B., Costa, J., and Oz, M. C., A pilot study to assess the effects of a guided imagery audiotape intervention on psychological outcomes in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Holistic Nursing Practice, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2010, pp213-222.
*Sahler O.J., Hunter, B.C., Liesveld J.L., The effect of using music therapy with relaxation imagery in the management of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a pilot feasibility study. Alternative Therapies, Vol. 9, No. 6, 2003, pp70- 74.
*Kent, D., "Zenventures: Unwind your Imagination with Guided Meditation". Masters Thesis. Buffalo State University, New York, 2014.</ref> reducing [[Asthma |asthmatic episodes]],<ref>Epstein G.N., Halper J.P., Barrett E.A., Birdsall, C., McGee, M., Baron K.P., Lowenstein S., A pilot study of mind-body changes in adults with asthma who practice mental imagery. alternative therapies. Volume 10, July/August 2004, pp66-71.</ref> physical [[Pain management|pain]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Menzies V., Taylor A.G., Bourguignon C., Effects of guided imagery on outcomes of pain, functional status, and self-efficacy in persons diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2006, pp23-30.
*Kwekkeboom, K. L., Kneip, J., and Pearson, L., A pilot study to predict success with guided imagery for cancer pain. Pain Management Nursing, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2003, pp112-123.
*Antall G.F., Kresevic D. The use of guided imagery to manage pain in an elderly orthopedic population. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 23, No. 5, September/October 2004, pp335-340</ref> [[insomnia]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Ong, J. C., Manber, R., Segal, Z., Xia, Y., Shapiro, S., and Wyatt, J. K., A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation for chronic insomnia. Sleep, Vol. 37, No. 9, 2014, p1553.
* Singh, A., and Modi, R., Meditation and positive mental health. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2012, p273.
* Molen, Y., Santos, G., Carvalho, L., Prado, L., and Prado, G., Pre-sleep worry decreases by adding reading and guided imagery to insomnia treatment. Sleep Medicine, Vol. 14, 2013, e210-e211.</ref> episodic anger,<ref>Awalt, R. M., Reilly, P. M., and Shopshire, M. S., The angry patient: an intervention for managing anger in substance abuse treatment. Journal of psychoactive drugs, Vol. 29, No. 4, 1997, 353-358.</ref> [[Cognitive distortion|negative or irrational thinking]],<ref>'''Sources''':
* Lang, T. J., Blackwell, S. E., Harmer, C., Davison, P., & Holmes, E. A., Cognitive bias modification using mental imagery for depression: Developing a novel computerized intervention to change negative thinking styles. European Journal of Personality, Vol. 26, 2012, pp145–157.
* Teasdale, J. D., Emotion and two kinds of meaning: Cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1993, pp339-354.
* Birnbaum, L., & Birnbaum, A., In search of inner wisdom: guided mindfulness meditation in the context of suicide. The Scientific World Journal, Vol. 4, 2004, pp216-227.</ref> and [[anxiety]], as well as improving [[Coping (psychology)|coping skills]],<ref>'''Sources''':
*Manyande, A., Berg, S., Gettins, D., Stanford, S. C., Mazhero, S., Marks, D. F., and Salmon, P., Preoperative rehearsal of active coping imagery influences subjective and hormonal responses to abdominal surgery. Psychosomatic Medicine, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1995, pp177-182.
*Hockenberry, M. H., Guided imagery as a coping measure for children with cancer. Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1989, pp29-29.</ref> focus,<ref>'''Sources''':
*Esplen, M. J. and Hodnett, E., A Pilot Study Investigating Student Musicians' Experiences of Guided Imagery as a Technique to Manage Performance Anxiety. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1999, pp127-132.
*Feltz, D. L., and Riessinger, C. A., Effects of in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1990, pp132-143.
*Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K., Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology, Vol. 191, No. 5, 2004, pp1811-1814.</ref> and a general feeling of [[well-being]].<ref>Hanh, Thich Nhat. The blooming of a lotus: Guided meditation for achieving the miracle of mindfulness. Beacon Press, 2009.</ref><ref>LeónPizarro C., Gich I., Barthe E., Rovirosa A., Farrús B., Casas F., Verger E., Biete A., Craven Bartle J., Sierra J., Arcusa A., A randomized trial of the effect of training in relaxation and guided imagery techniques in improving psychological and quality-of-life indices for gynecologic and breast brachytherapy patients. Psycho-oncology, Vol. 16, No. 11, 2007, pp971-979.</ref>