Editing Islamic philosophy (section)

== Other fields ==

===Epistemology===
[[Avicenna]]'s most influential theory in [[epistemology]] is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of [[tabula rasa]]. He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "[[empirical]] familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "[[Syllogism|syllogistic]] method of [[reasoning]]; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts."<ref>Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm Avicenna/Ibn Sina (c. 980–1037)], ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''</ref>

In the 12th century, [[Ibn Tufail]] further developed the concept of tabula rasa in his [[Arabic literature|Arabic novel]], ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqzan]]'', in which he depicted the development of the mind of a [[feral child]] "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a [[desert island]]. The Latin translation of his work, entitled ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', published by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger in 1671, had an influence on [[John Locke]]'s formulation of tabula rasa in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]''.<ref name=Russell>{{harvp|Russell|1994|pp=224–62}}</ref>

===Eschatology===
{{Main|Islamic eschatology}}
Islamic [[eschatology]] is concerned with the ''[[Qiyamah]]'' ([[Eschatology|end of the world]]; [[Last Judgement]]) and the [[Last Judgment|final judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatology]] relates to one of the six articles of faith (''[[aqidah]]'') of Islam. Like the other [[Abrahamic religion]]s, Islam teaches the bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' ([[Heaven]]), while the unrighteous are punished in ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]). A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many ''[[hadith]]'' elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as ''[[Fitna (word)|fitna]]'' (a test) and ''malahim'' (or ''ghayba'' in the [[Shi'a]] tradition).

[[Ibn al-Nafis]] dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his ''[[Theologus Autodidactus]]'', where he [[Rationality|rationalized]] the Islamic view of eschatology using reason and [[Islamic science|science]] to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of [[Arabic literature|Arabic fiction]], hence his ''Theologus Autodidactus'' may be considered the earliest [[science fiction]] work.<ref name="Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher">Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206072116/http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html |date=2008-02-06 }}, ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>

===Legal philosophy===
{{Main|Fiqh|Sharia}}
[[Sharia|Sharia ({{lang|ar|{{big|شَرِيعَةٌ}}}})]] refers to the body of Islamic [[law]]. The term means "way" or "path"; it is the legal framework within which public and some private aspects of life are regulated for those living in a legal system based on Islamic principles of jurisprudence. Fiqh is the term for Islamic jurisprudence, made up of the rulings of Islamic jurists. A component of Islamic studies, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic law is derived from primary and secondary sources.

Mainstream Islam distinguish ''fiqh'', which means understanding details and inferences drawn by scholars, from ''sharia'' that refers to principles that lie behind the fiqh. Scholars hope that ''fiqh'' and ''sharia'' are in harmony in any given case, but they cannot be sure.<ref>On the Sources of Islamic Law and Practices, The Journal of law and religion {{issn|0748-0814}} Souaiaia 2005 vol: 20 iss:1 p:123</ref>

===Philosophical novels===
The Islamic philosophers, [[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer)<ref name=Jon>Jon Mcginnis, ''Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources'', p. 284, [[Hackett Publishing Company]], {{ISBN|0-87220-871-0}}.</ref> and [[Ibn al-Nafis]],<ref name=Meyerhof>Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "''The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis'' by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''94''' (2), pp. 232–34.</ref> were pioneers of the [[philosophical novel]]. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional [[Arabic literature|Arabic novel]] ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') as a response to [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional [[novel]] ''[[Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' as a response to Ibn Tufail's ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these novels had [[protagonist]]s (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were [[Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] individuals [[Abiogenesis|spontaneously generated]] in a cave and living in seclusion on a [[desert island]], both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel.<ref name="Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher"/><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (died 1288)", p. 95–101, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615|date=2015-04-04}}</ref>

Ibn al-Nafis described his book ''Theologus Autodidactus'' as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily [[resurrection]] and the [[immortality]] of the human soul, using both demonstrative [[reasoning]] and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.<ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", pp. 42, 60, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615|date=2015-04-04}}</ref>

A Latin translation of ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' was published in 1671, prepared by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger.<ref>{{harvp|Toomer|1996|pp=220–21}}</ref> The first English translation by [[Simon Ockley]] was published in 1708, and [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] translations were also published at the time. ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' went on to have a significant influence on [[European literature]],<ref name=Wainwright>Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 22 March 2003.</ref> and became an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=Russell-228>{{harvp|Russell|1994|p=228}}.</ref> These translations later inspired [[Daniel Defoe]] to write ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the [[first novel in English]].<ref name=Wainwright/><ref>Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), ''Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature'', Al-Rashid House for Publication.</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), ''New [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', p. 202, Rowman Altamira, {{ISBN|0-7591-0190-6}}.</ref><ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357–77 [369].</ref>

''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also had a "profound influence" on [[Modern philosophy|modern]] [[Western philosophy]].<ref name=Toomer-218>{{harvp|Toomer|1996|p=218}}</ref> It became "one of the most important books that heralded the [[Scientific Revolution]]" and [[Age of Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]], and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]."<ref>[[Samar Attar]], ''The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought'', Lexington Books, {{ISBN|0-7391-1989-3}}.</ref> The novel inspired the concept of "[[tabula rasa]]" developed in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1690) by Locke, who was a student of Pococke.<ref>{{harvp|Russell|1994|pp=224–39}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Toomer|1996|pp=221–22}}</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also developed the themes of [[empiricism]], [[tabula rasa]], [[nature versus nurture]],<ref name="Russell"/> [[condition of possibility]], [[materialism]],<ref>Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), ''The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān'', pp. 38–46, [[Brill Publishers]], {{ISBN|90-04-09300-1}}.</ref> and [[Molyneux's Problem]].<ref>Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik [[Ibn Tufayl]] and Léon Gauthier (1981), ''Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan'', p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.[http://limitedinc.blogspot.com/2007/04/things-about-arabick-influence-on-john.html]</ref> The novel also inspired [[Robert Boyle]], another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, ''The Aspiring Naturalist''.<ref name=Toomer-222>{{harvp|Toomer|1996|p=222}}</ref> Other European scholars influenced by ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' include [[Gottfried Leibniz]],<ref name=Wainwright/> [[Melchisédech Thévenot]], [[John Wallis]], [[Christiaan Huygens]],<ref>{{harvp|Russell|1994|p=227}}</ref> [[George Keith (missionary)|George Keith]], [[Robert Barclay]], the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]],<ref>{{harvp|Russell|1994|p=247}}</ref> and [[Samuel Hartlib]].<ref name=Toomer-222/>

===Political philosophy===
Early Islamic [[political philosophy]] emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of [[ijtihad]] to find truth—in effect ''all'' philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the [[Mutazilite]] philosophers, who held a more [[secularism|secular]] view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the [[Caliphate]]. The only [[Greek language|Greek]] political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' and the [[Laws (dialogue)|''Laws'']]. By the end of the [[Islamic Golden Age]], however, the [[Asharite]] view of Islam had in general triumphed.

Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i.e. the [[Qur'an]] and the [[Sunnah]], the words and practices of Muhammad. However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: [[al-Kindi]] (Alkindus), [[al-Farabi]] (Alfarabi), [[Avicenna|İbn Sina]] (Avicenna), [[Ibn Bajjah]] (Avempace), [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (Averroes), and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i.e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other [[Fiqh|jurists]] and [[Ulema|ulama]] posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the [[Kharijites|Khawarij]] in the very early years of [[Muslim history|Islamic history]] on [[Caliphate|Khilafa]] and [[Ummah]], or that of [[Shia Islam]] on the concept of [[Imamah (Shi'a doctrine)|Imamah]] are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the [[Sunni Islam|Ehl-i Sunna]] and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.

The 14th-century [[Arab]] scholar [[Ibn Khaldun]] is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist [[Ernest Gellner]] considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of [[government]], "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory.<ref>Ernest Gellner, ''Plough, Sword and Book'' (1988), p. 239</ref>

===Philosophy of history===
The first detailed studies on the subject of [[historiography]] and the first critiques on [[historical method]]s appeared in the works of the [[Arab]] [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406), who is regarded as the father of [[historiography]], [[cultural history]],<ref>Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", ''Islam & Science'' '''5''' (1), pp. 61–70.</ref> and the [[philosophy of history]], especially for his historiographical writings in the ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' ([[Latin]]ized as ''Prolegomena'') and ''Kitab al-Ibar'' (''Book of Advice'').<ref>S. Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. {{ISBN|1-85065-356-9}}.</ref> His ''Muqaddimah'' also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of [[Sovereign state|state]], [[communication]], [[propaganda]] and [[systematic bias]] in history,<ref>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> and he discussed the rise and fall of [[civilization]]s.

[[Franz Rosenthal]] wrote in the ''History of Muslim Historiography'':

{{Blockquote|Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing... The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the [[sociology|sociological]] understanding of [[history]] and the systematisation of [[historiography]]. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the 17th century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking.<ref>[http://members.tripod.com/~salems2/historiography.htm "Historiography"]. The Islamic Scholar.</ref>}}

===Philosophy of religion===
There is an important question on the relation of religion and philosophy, reason and faith and so on. In one hand there is extraordinary importance attached to religion in Islamic civilization and in other hand they created certain doctrines in respect to reason and religion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Akbarian |first=Reza |pages=109–142 |journal=Alhekmah |date=Winter 2008 |number=1 |title=The Relationship Between Religion And Philosophy In The History Of Islamic Thought |volume=1 |url=https://www.noormags.ir/view/en/articlepage/574395/the-relationship-between-religion-and-philosophy-in-the-history-of-islamic-thought}}</ref>

===Social philosophy===
The social [[philosopher]] and [[Ash'ari]] polymath [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332–1406) was the last major Islamic philosopher from [[Tunis]], North Africa. In his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'', he developed the earliest theories on social philosophy, in formulating theories of [[Structural cohesion|social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]]. His ''Muqaddimah'' was also the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[Human history|universal history]].

Ibn Khaldun is considered the "father of [[sociology]]", "father of [[historiography]]", and "father of the [[philosophy of history]]" by some, for allegedly being the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and the philosophy of history in detail.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=ʻAlī |first1=Wardī |title=A sociological analysis of Ibn Khaldun's theory : a study in the sociology of knowledge |type=PhD |publisher=University of Texas |hdl=2152/15127 |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/15127 |date=1 June 1950}}</ref>

===Judeo-Islamic philosophies===
{{Main|Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)}}
Islamic philosophy found an audience with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the [[Ibn Tibbon]]s, [[Narboni]], [[Gersonides]]—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil [[Joseph ben Judah]], spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary.

The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved in Arabic is that of [[Saadia Gaon]] (892–942), ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth|Emunot ve-Deot]]'', "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ''[[ex nihilo]]'', just as the [[Bible]] attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (''sifat al-dhatia'') can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (''sifat-al-fi'aliya''). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the [[celestial spheres]]. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" '''arad'' (compare [[Guide for the Perplexed]] i. 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views.

Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, [[Al-Ghazali|Al Ghazali]] found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallimun for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the [[Kalam (islamic term)|Kalam]] give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in [[Judah ha-Levi]]'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament.

Similarly the reaction in favour of stricter Aristotelianism, as found in [[Averroes]], had its Jewish counterpart in the work of [[Maimonides]]. Later Jewish philosophers, such as [[Gersonides]] and [[Elijah Delmedigo]], followed the school of Averroes and played a part in transmitting Averroist thought to medieval Europe.

In Spain and Italy, Jewish translators such as [[Abraham de Balmes]] and [[Jacob Mantino]] translated Arabic philosophic literature into [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Latin]], contributing to the development of modern European philosophy.