Editing History of Africa (section)

=== Central Africa ===

==== The central Sahel ====

===== c. 1250-1500 =====
In northern Nigeria, the [[Yaji I|Kano king]] converted [[Sultanate of Kano|to Islam]] in 1349 after ''[[Dawah|da'wah]]'' (invitation) from some [[Soninke Wangara]], and later absorbed [[Rano]].<ref name="Niane 1984" />{{rp|pages=171}}

==== West Congo Basin ====

===== c. 1250–1500 =====
By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin around [[Pool Malebo]]. The [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza]], considered to be the oldest and most powerful, likely included [[Nsundi]], [[Mbata Kingdom|Mbata]], [[Mpangu]], and possibly [[Kundi kingdom|Kundi]] and [[Okanga]]. South of these was [[Mpemba]] which stretched from its capital in northern Angola 200&nbsp;km north to the [[Congo River]]. It included various kingdoms such as [[Mpemba Kasi]], its northernmost and remotest component, and [[Vunda]]. To its west across the [[Congo River]] was a confederation of three small states; [[Vungu]] (its leader), [[Kakongo]], and [[Ngoyo]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=24–25}}

The formation of the [[Kingdom of Kongo]] began in the late 13th century. [[Kongo people|Kongo]] oral traditions hold that [[Ntinu Wene]] (lit. "King of the Kingdom") crossed the Congo River from [[Vungu]] to conquer [[Mpemba Kasi]], known as the "Mother of Kongo".{{Efn|The choice of a title over a personal name indicates that this is more representative of symbolic relationships and rights of rulership rather than real events.}} The first kings ruled from [[Nsi Kwilu|Nsi a Kwilu]], a valley and old religious centre, which produced iron and steel, and linked the copper and [[Kuba textiles|textile-producing]] north to the south.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=25–26}} Around the 1350s [[Nimi Nzima]] established an alliance with the rulers of [[Mbata Kingdom|Mbata]], who were looking to break away from the [[Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza|Seven Kingdoms]], and agreed to secure each other's dynasties, making them known as the "Grandfather of Kongo".<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=27–29}}

Tradition holds that Nimi Nzima's son, [[Lukeni lua Nimi]], wishing to aggrandise himself, built a fortress and blocked and taxed commerce. One day his pregnant aunt refused to pay the toll, and in a rage he killed her. While reprehensible, his action won him followers due to his determination and valour and allowed him to embark on conquests. To the south the market town of [[Mpangala]], itself a sub unit of [[Vunda]], was absorbed, with Vunda also styled as a Grandfather. This weakening of the [[Mpemba]] confederation precipitated its conquest and integration into the Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=27–29}} Lukeni lua Nimi also conquered [[Kabunga]] in the west, whose leaders were regional religious leaders, not dissimilar from [[pope]]s. From there [[Soyo]] and [[Mbamba]] were conquered.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=29–30}}

The power and resources gained from these conquests allowed Kongo to expand north into [[Nsundi]], which had multiple sub-units. Traditionally, a governor on Nsundi's western border forebode entry until they had fought a symbolic battle. Kongo conquered Nsundi and delegated it to a royal governor, who greatly expanded the territory, conquering [[Nsanga]] and [[Masinga (kingdom)|Masinga]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=29–30}} Northeast, [[Teke people|Teke]] oral tradition holds that [[Mabiala Mantse|Mabiala Mantsi]] united the Bateke tribes, centralised his governance, and expanded using militaristic and diplomatic skill.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-09-16|title=▷ Who is the founder of the Téké kingdom? {{!}}|url=https://visitfranceguide.com/who-is-the-founder-of-the-teke-kingdom/|access-date=2024-10-23|website=visitfranceguide.com|language=es}}</ref> Kongo's conquests eastward brought it into conflict with the formidable [[Teke Kingdom]] which halted their expansion. This expansion had primarily been done by allying and co-opting polities. By the late 15th century,  Kongo had developed a new administrative system which would increase its centralisation, and after integrating [[Vunda]], they set about conquering these polities and converting them into royal provinces.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=30}}

Small confederations, like [[Kisama]], often put up spirited and successful resistance to either internal consolidation by aggressive components, or external conquest and integration.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=23}} To the south around the [[Geography of Angola|highlands of Angola]] the [[Ambundu]] kingdoms of [[Ndongo]] and [[Matamba]] formed. The [[Dembos]] confederation sat between them and Kongo. Ndongo had come under tributary status to Kongo by the 16th century, and oral traditions collected in the 17th century hold their founder, [[Ngola Mussuri]] or [[Ngola Bumbambula|Bumbambula]], to be a blacksmith who came there from Kongo, and was elected king ([[Ngola (title)|''Ngola'']]) due to his benevolence.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Struggle for Ambundu and the Founding of Angola|date=2020|work=A History of West Central Africa to 1850|pages=56–88|editor-last=Thornton|editor-first=John K.|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/struggle-for-ambundu-and-the-founding-of-angola/0293CB3B48977422888301A3B23B2084|access-date=2024-10-27|series=New Approaches to African History|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-56593-7}}</ref>{{Rp|page=57}}

To its east around [[Lake Mai-Ndombe]], there emerged [[Mwene Muji]], likely around 1400. Their 'empire' status is pending on further archaeological research. With a powerful riverine navy, they expanded along the [[Kasai River|Kasai]], [[Lukenie River|Lukenie]], [[Kamtsha River|Kamtsha]], [[Kwilu River|Kwilu]], and [[Wamba River|Wamba]] rivers, without venturing much into the interior, coming to dominate trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thornton|first=John|date=2024|title=Mwene Muji: A Medieval Empire in Central Africa?|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-african-history/article/mwene-muji-a-medieval-empire-in-central-africa/2F2D9F46069847DC655F171B75636D27|journal=The Journal of African History|language=en|volume=65|issue=1|pages=30–46|doi=10.1017/S0021853724000161|issn=0021-8537}}</ref>

In the late 15th century, Kongo came into contact with the Portuguese. A Kongo delegation was invited to [[Lisbon]] in 1487, and relations were initially warm. A Portuguese priest mastered [[Kikongo]] and his input led to the [[baptism]] of [[João I of Kongo|Kongo's king]] and royal court.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|pages=37–39}} At the same time commercial relations developed. Trade in slaves was the most lucrative.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|page=52}}

==== East Congo Basin ====

===== c. 1250–1500 =====
Further southeast in the [[Upemba Depression]], "Lords of the land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically incorporated diplomatically or by force, leading to the formation of states.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last=Vansina|first=Jan|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287|title=General History of Africa: Volume 4|date=1984|publisher=UNESCO Publishing|chapter=Equatorial Africa and Angola: Migrations and the emergence of the first states}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=557–558}} Some of those of the [[Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic|southern savanna]], such as the [[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]] and [[Songye people|Songye]], had transitioned from being matrilineal to [[Patrilineality|patrilineal]] by 1500, while others such as the [[Hemba people|Luba-Hemba]] and [[Chokwe people|Chokwe]] remained so, making up the [[matrilineal belt]]. An early state formed between the [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] and [[Lomami River|Lomami]] rivers among the Luba-Katanga, around the 15th century, known as the [[Kingdom of Luba]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118455074|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire|date=2016-01-11|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-118-44064-3|editor-last=Dalziel|editor-first=Nigel|edition=1|pages=1–6|language=en|chapter=Luba-Lunda states|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe060|editor-last2=MacKenzie|editor-first2=John M}}</ref> [[Luba Empire#Oral traditions|Their oral traditions]] account their people's history and hold their first king, [[Kongolo Mwamba|Nkongolo]], as a conqueror.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reefe|first=Thomas Q.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNZ9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23|title=The Rainbow and the Kings: A History of the Luba Empire to 1891|date=2022-08-19|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-33490-8|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Gordon|first=David M.|title=Kingdoms of South-Central Africa: Sources, Historiography, and History|date=2018-09-26|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-146|access-date=2024-10-29|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.146|isbn=978-0-19-027773-4|doi-access=free|encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History}}</ref>