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===The formal economy=== Research into the causes and consequences of [[occupational segregation]], the [[gender pay gap]], and the "[[glass ceiling]]" have been a significant part of feminist economics. While conventional neoclassical economic theories of the 1960s and 1970s explained these as the result of free choices made by women and men who simply had different abilities or preferences, feminist economists pointed out the important roles played by [[stereotyping]], [[sexism]], [[patriarchal]] beliefs and institutions, [[sexual harassment]], and [[discrimination]].<ref>e.g., {{cite journal|last=Bergmann|first=Barbara R.|title=Occupational Segregation, Wages and Profits When Employers Discriminate by Race or Sex|journal=Eastern Economic Journal|date=April 1974|volume=1|issue=2|pages=103β110|jstor=40315472}} See also [[male-female income disparity in the United States]].</ref> The rationales for, and the effects of, [[anti-discrimination law]]s adopted in many industrial countries beginning in the 1970s, has also been studied.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beller|first=Andrea H.|title=Occupational Segregation by Sex: Determinants and Changes|journal=The Journal of Human Resources|date=Summer 1982|volume=17|issue=3|pages=371β392|jstor=145586|doi=10.2307/145586}}; Bergmann, Barbara. ''In Defense of Affirmative Action'', New York: Basic Books, 1996.</ref> Women moved in large numbers into previous male bastions — especially professions like medicine and law — during the last decades of the 20th century. The [[gender pay gap]] remains and is shrinking more slowly. Feminist economists such as Marilyn Power, Ellen Mutari and Deborah M. Figart have examined the gender pay gap and found that wage setting procedures are not primarily driven by market forces, but instead by the power of actors, cultural understandings of the value of work and what constitutes a proper living, and social gender norms.<ref>{{cite book|title=Toward a Feminist Philosophy of Economics|volume=20031146|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=London [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-415-28387-8|pages=70β86|chapter=Beyond Markets: Wage Setting and the Methodology of Feminist Political Economy|author=Power, Marilyn|author2=Mutari, Ellen|author3=Figart, Deborah M.|doi=10.4324/9780203422694 |series=Economics as Social Theory}}</ref> Consequently, they assert that economic models must take these typically exogenous variables into account. While overt employment discrimination by sex remains a concern of feminist economists, in recent years more attention has been paid to discrimination against [[caregivers]]βthose women, and some men, who give hands-on care to children or sick or elderly friends or relatives. Because many business and government policies were designed to accommodate the "ideal worker" (that is, the traditional male worker who had no such responsibilities) rather than caregiver-workers, inefficient and inequitable treatment has resulted.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Waldfogel|first=Jane|title=The Effect of Children on Women's Wages|journal=American Sociological Review|date=April 1997|volume=62|issue=2|pages=209β217|jstor=2657300|doi=10.2307/2657300}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/1354570042000217694| title=The dilemmas of lone motherhood: Key issues for feminist economics| journal=Feminist Economics| volume=10| issue=2| pages=1β7| year=2004| last1=Albelda| first1=Randy| last2=Himmelweit| first2=Susan| last3=Humphries| first3=Jane| s2cid=154585874}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Williams | first = Joan | author-link = Joan C Williams | title = Unbending gender: why family and work conflict and what to do about it | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 2000 | isbn = 9780195147148 }}</ref>
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