Editing DNA (section)

=== DNA profiling ===
{{further|DNA profiling}}

[[Forensic science|Forensic scientists]] can use DNA in [[blood]], [[semen]], [[skin]], [[saliva]] or [[hair]] found at a [[crime scene]] to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://theconversation.com/from-the-crime-scene-to-the-courtroom-the-journey-of-a-dna-sample-82250|title=From the crime scene to the courtroom: the journey of a DNA sample| vauthors = Curtis C, Hereward J |date=29 August 2017 |work=The Conversation |access-date=22 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022033110/http://theconversation.com/from-the-crime-scene-to-the-courtroom-the-journey-of-a-dna-sample-82250 |archive-date=22 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> This process is formally termed [[DNA profiling]], also called ''DNA fingerprinting''. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as [[short tandem repeat]]s and [[minisatellite]]s, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Collins A, Morton NE | title = Likelihood ratios for DNA identification | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 91 | issue = 13 | pages = 6007–11 | date = June 1994 | pmid = 8016106 | pmc = 44126 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.91.13.6007 | bibcode = 1994PNAS...91.6007C | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weir BS, Triggs CM, Starling L, Stowell LI, Walsh KA, Buckleton J | title = Interpreting DNA mixtures | journal = Journal of Forensic Sciences | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 213–22 | date = March 1997 | doi = 10.1520/JFS14100J | pmid = 9068179 | s2cid = 14511630 }}</ref> DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir [[Alec Jeffreys]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeffreys AJ, Wilson V, Thein SL | title = Individual-specific 'fingerprints' of human DNA | journal = Nature | volume = 316 | issue = 6023 | pages = 76–79 | year = 1985 | pmid = 2989708 | doi = 10.1038/316076a0 | bibcode = 1985Natur.316...76J | s2cid = 4229883 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 [[Colin Pitchfork|Enderby murders]] case.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2006-12-14|title=Colin Pitchfork|url=http://www.forensic.gov.uk/forensic_t/inside/news/list_casefiles.php?case=1|access-date=2023-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214004903/http://www.forensic.gov.uk/forensic_t/inside/news/list_casefiles.php?case=1 |archive-date=14 December 2006 }}</ref>

The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the [[double jeopardy]] law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defense to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime.

DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://massfatality.dna.gov/Introduction/ |title=DNA Identification in Mass Fatality Incidents |date=September 2006 |publisher=National Institute of Justice |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061112000837/http://massfatality.dna.gov/Introduction/ |archive-date=12 November 2006 }}</ref> bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.

DNA profiling is also used in [[DNA paternity testing]] to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal [[DNA sequencing]] methods happen after birth, but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.<ref>{{Cite news| vauthors = Pollack A |date=2012-06-19|title=Before Birth, Dad's ID|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/20/health/paternity-blood-tests-that-work-early-in-a-pregnancy.html|access-date=2023-03-27|issn=0362-4331|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170624231639/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/20/health/paternity-blood-tests-that-work-early-in-a-pregnancy.html|archive-date=2017-06-24|url-status=live}}</ref>